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A TEXT-BOOK OF 


MINOR SURGERY 







A TEXT BOOK OF 

MINOR SURGERY 


BY 

EDWARD MILTON FOOTE, A.M., M.D. 

VISITING SURGEON, ST. JOSEPH’S HOSPITAL; 

CONSULTING SURGEON, RANDALL’S ISLAND HOSPITALS AND SCHOOLS; 

FORMERLY CHIEF IN SURGERY AT THE VANDERBILT CLINIC, AND INSTRUCTOR IN SURGERY, 
COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS (COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY); 

CLINICAL PROFESSOR OF SURGERY, NEW YORK POLYCLINIC MEDICAL SCHOOL AND HOSPITAL; 

VISITING SURGEON, NEW YORK CITY HOSPITAL; AND NEW YORK SKIN AND CANCER HOSPITAL; 
COMMANDER (M. C,) U. S. NAVAL RESERVE FORCE. 


FIFTH EDITION 

ILLUSTRATED BY FOUR HUNDRED AND FORTY ENGRAVINGS 
FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS AND PHOTOGRAPHS 



D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
NEW YORK AND LONDON 



1923 





Copyright, 1907 , 1909 , 1911 , 1914 , 1916 , 1923 , by 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 



©C1A752818 


Printed in the United States of America 


SEP-7'23 




THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO 


THE MAN AT THE POINT OF THE KNIFE 
FOR HIS GRIT AND PATIENCE, AND ESPECIALLY FOR 
HIS WILLINGNESS TO BE PHOTOGRAPHED 
THAT OTHERS MAY PROFIT BY 


HIS MISFORTUNE 



PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION 


In the past ten years many new ideas in the diagnosis and 
treatment of disease have been announced and tested. Some of 
them, like the Wassermann test of the blood, and the intravenous 
injection of preparations of arsenic in cases of syphilis, have 
affected all branches of medicine. Others like the Carrel-Dakin 
treatment of wounds, or the paraffin treatment of burns are 
purely surgical in character. The war offered the opportunity 
to try out on a vast scale both old and new forms of surgical 
technique. Now that the results of this unusual work are known, 
and the world, or at least our part of it, has resumed once more 
its accustomed routine, it has seemed a good time to review this 
Text-book of Minor Surgery, so that all of its chapters may be in 
harmony with the new ideas that properly fall within this field 
and which have proved their worth. 

Edward Milton Foote 

119 East Fortieth Street 
New York City 




PREFACE 


In preparing this “ Minor Surgery,” it has been my purpose to 
apply to the less serious, every-day problems of surgical practise the 
new knowledge which the discoveries of the last twenty-five years 
have revealed. During this period the advances in diagnosis and 
treatment have rendered necessary a new surgical literature, and many 
excellent text-books have appeared, in one, two, and four volumes. 
In these the more serious surgical conditions are exhaustively dis¬ 
cussed, while the treatment of the lesser ailments—the minor surgery 
which forms the bulk of surgical practise—is condensed into a chapter 
or two, in which methods of treatment long since outgrown still find 
their place. Nor is the importance of minor surgery recognized in 
the curriculum of our medical schools. 

And yet this neglected field of minor surgery is the only one into 
which the average practitioner will ever enter, and is also the one 
in which most surgeons will find the majority of their patients. What 
wonder then that the physician, untaught and unread in minor sur¬ 
gery, fails to achieve good results, and that more bad surgery is per¬ 
formed upon the hand than upon the organs of the abdomen? 

Impressed by the need of a text-book which describes in detail 
the manifold lesser accidents and surgical diseases which the general 
practitioner is called upon to treat, I commenced eight years ago 
the preparation of such a book. It has been rewritten several times, 
until hardly a page of the original manuscript remains; and it ap¬ 
pears now in its development, somewhat larger, hut the same in pur¬ 
pose as when it was first conceived. 

If this “ Minor Surgery ” fails to meet the expectations of the 
reader, this fault does not lie in the author’s lack of experience; for I 
had the richest opportunity for the preparation of just such a book in 
a ten years’ almost daily service in the Surgical Department of the 


IX 




X 


PREFACE 


Vanderbilt Clinic, with an average annual attendance of about four 
thousand new patients. Besides this I have enjoyed the advantages 
which come from teaching both minor surgery and general surgery 
in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and from surgical at¬ 
tendance in the RandalFs Island Hospitals, the Hew York City Hos¬ 
pital, and the Hew York Polyclinic Hospital. 

I have striven to present in compact form the results of this ex¬ 
perience and the best that has been written in books, magazines, and 
journals, taking with free hand from every available source. A mere 
list of the articles consulted would fill several pages. Very few au¬ 
thors’ names are mentioned because such simple procedures as are 
herein described must often suggest themselves to many minds. We 
all owe so much to our predecessors. 

The aim has been to illustrate by photographs as far as possible. 
Too often medical illustrations show what might be, rather than 
what is; for the difficulties of making clinical photographs sufficiently 
clear for good reproduction are tremendous. Mr. H. C. Lehmann 
has aided me very much in this part of the work, and has also fur¬ 
nished all of the drawings. My thanks are also due to Dr. E. J. 
McKenzie for many good photographs made while he was a student 
in my clinic; and to Mr. B. F. Puffer, who took for me the photo¬ 
graphs to illustrate the chapter on bandaging. 

Edward Milton Foote. 

119 East Fortieth Street, 

Hew York City. 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION I 

AFFECTIONS OF THE HEAD 

Chapter I.—Injuries of the Head 

General considerations .. 

Contusions: Subconjunctival ecchymosis—Hematoma in the new¬ 
born ; of the ear. 

Hemorrhage from the nose. 

Abrasions: Removal of powder grains. 

Foreign bodies.. . 

Foreign body in the eye; ear and nose; mouth and throat. 

Wounds. 

Wounds of the eye; mouth; Steno’s duct; periosteum. 

Fractures. 

Fracture of skull; into frontal sinus; of malar; of nasal; of superior 
maxilla; of inferior maxilla; complications. 

Dislocation of the jaw: Subluxation. 

Chapter II.— Inflammations of the Head 

Effects of heat and cold. 

Burns—Sunburn; of lip—X-ray burn—Frost-bite—Dermatitis. 

Acute inflammations. 

Urticaria — Herpes — Impetigo — Acne Cellulitis — Erysipelas 
—Boil—Stye — Boils of the nose and ear—Abscess—Alveolar 
Abscess. 

Inflammations of the eye. 

Acute conjunctivitis—Purulent conjunctivitis—Granular lids—• 
Trachoma—Ingrowing lashes. 

Inflammation of the ear: Otitis media. 

Inflammations of the nose. 

Acute rhinitis—Chronic rhinitis—Suppuration in frontal sinus; 
in antrum of Highmore. 

Inflammations of the mouth and throat. 

Stomatitis and gingivitis—Peritonsillar abscess—Retropharyn¬ 
geal abscess. 

Inflammations of the skin. 

Eczema—Ringworm—Ulcer—Anthrax—Noma. 

Chronic inflammations. 

Syphilis: Secondary lesions; tertiary lesions—Tuberculosis of 
nose and mouth—Actinomycosis. 

xi 


PAGE 

1 

5 

7 

8 

13 

17 

24 

25 
31 

47 

51 

53 

55 

57 

59 






Xll 


CONTENTS 


Chapter III.—Tumors and Deformities of the Head 

Cystic tumors. 

Milium—Comedo—Sebaceous cyst—Mucous cyst—Salivary cysts 
—Dental cyst—Dermoid cyst—Congenital sinus. 

Benign solid tumors. 

Papilloma — Mole — Lipoma — Fibrolipoma—Angioma—N evus—■ 
Acne hypertrophica—Hypertrophy of tonsil—Adenoids—Epulis 
—Otolit hs—Osteoma—Spur. 

Malignant tumors. 

Epithelioma of scalp; of face; of lip; of tongue—Sarcoma—Angio¬ 
sarcoma—Parotid tumors—Cancer of tonsil. 

Acquired deformities. 

Cicatrices—Nasal deformities—Deviation of septum—Elongation 
of uvula. 

Congenital deformities. 

Harelip—Cleft palate—Cleft lower lip—Thick lips—Tongue tie— 
Deformities of ear. 


SECTION II 

i 

AFFECTIONS OF THE NECK 

* 

Chapter IV.— Injuries and Inflammations of the Neck 

Contusions. 

Foreign bodies. 

Foreign bodies: of larynx; of trachea; of esophagus. 

Wounds.. 

Wounds of vessels; of trachea; of esophagus—Tracheotomy- 
Intubation 

Sprain of cervical spine. 

Fractures. 

Fracture of hyoid; of larynx; of trachea; of vertebra. 

Dislocation of vertebra. 

Inflammations. 

Burn — Cellulitis — Erysipelas — Boil—Carbuncle—Abscess—An¬ 
gina ludovici—Anthrax—Tuberculosis of vertebra—Arthritis. 

Chapter V.— Tumors and Deformities of the Neck 

Tumors. 

Sebaceous cysts—Thyroid cyst—Thyreoglossal cyst—Branchio- 
genic cyst—Lipoma: Simple, diffuse, intermuscular—Fibroma 
—Lymphadenitis: Acute; tuberculous; syphilitic; in leukemia; in 
pseudoleukemia; in sarcoma; in carcinoma—Goiter. 

Acquired deformities. 

Cicatrices—W ryneck. 


PAGE 

66 

76 

92 

108 

112 


117 

117 

118 

122 

123 

125 

125 

135 

147 













CONTENTS 


SECTION III 

AFFECTIONS OF THE TRUNK 

Chapter VI. —Injuries and Inflammations of the Trunk 

Contusions.. 

Contusion of breast; of back and ribs; of abdomen. 

Wounds. 

Hemorrhage from umbilicus—Gunshot wound of back—Pene¬ 
trating wound of pleural cavity; of pericardial cavity; of abdomen. 

Sprains. 

Sprain of back—Railroad spine. 

Fractures. 

Fracture of clavicle; of scapula; of sternum; of ribs; of vertebra. 

Dislocations. 

Dislocation of clavicle; of costal cartilage; of vertebra. 

Acute inflammations. 

Burns—Insect bites—Scabies—Herpes zoster—Cellulitis—Derma¬ 
titis—Erysipelas—Abscess of breast; of umbilicus—Bed-sore—• 
Empyema. 

Chronic inflammations. 

Syphilis—-Tuberculosis of sternoclavicular joint; of ribs; of verte¬ 
brae; of sacroiliac joint; of mammary gland. 

Chapter VII. —Tumors and Deformities of the Trunk 

Cystic tumors. 

Sebaceous cyst—Umbilical cyst—Coccygeal cyst—Dermoid cyst—• 
Cysts of mammary gland. 

Solid benign tumors of trunk. 

Granuloma—Keloid—Papilloma—Fibrolipoma—Lipoma. 

Solid tumors of breast. 

Hypertrophy—Adenoma—Early diagnosis of malignant tumors—• 
Tumors of male breast. 

Malignant tumors of trunk: Carcinoma and sarcoma of skin 

Acquired deformities.' 

Coccygodynia—Hernia: Umbilical; inguinal; femoral; strangulated 
—Ascites—Paracentesis. 

Congenital deformity: Spina bifida. 


SECTION IV 

AFFECTIONS OF THE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

Chapter VIII. —Injuries and Inflammations of the Male Genito¬ 
urinary Organs 

Subcutaneous injuries. 

Contusion of penis and testicle—Hematoma—Hematocele 
Fracture of penis—Paraphimosis—Neuralgia of testicle. 



XIV 


CONTENTS 


Foreign bodies. 

Foreign bodies of penis; of urethra; of bladder. 

Wounds: Rupture of urethra; of bladder. 

Acute inflammations. 

Burns — Balanitis — Herpes — Urethritis—Abscess—Gonorrhea— 
Cystitis—Epididymitis—Posterior urethritis—Stricture — Reten¬ 
tion of urine — Incontinence—Catheterization—Eczema—Chan¬ 
croid—Inguinal adenitis. 

Chronic inflammations. 

Syphilis—Mixed infection—Syphilitic orchitis—Tuberculosis of 

testicle. 

Chapter IX. —Tumors and Deformities of the Male Genito-Urinary 
Organs 

Tumors. 

Cysts of skin; of testicle—Warts—Epithelioma—Carcinoma— 
Sarcoma—Castration—Tumors of bladder and prostate. 

Acquired deformities. 

Hydrocele—Hydrocele of the cord—Varicocele. 

Congenital deformities. 

Phimosis—Circumcision—Short frenum—Narrow meatus—Hypo¬ 
spadias—Epispadias—Exstrophy of bladder—Undescended testi¬ 
cle. 

Chapter X. —Affections of the Female Genito-Urinary Organs 

Inj uries. 

Contusions—Rupture of hymen; of vagina—Hematoma—Acute 
laceration of perineum—Hemorrhage—Rape. 

Foreign bodies. 

Foreign bodies of vagina; of urethra; of bladder. 

Acute inflammations. 

Pruritus—Eczema—Simple vulvitis and vaginitis—Acute gonor¬ 
rhea; of vulva; of urethra; of Bartholin’s glands—Simple suppu¬ 
ration. 

Chronic inflammations. 

Chronic gonorrhea—Endocervicitis—Endometritis—Dilatation— 
Currettage—Chancroid—Syphilis—Chancre—Condyloma. 

Tumors. 

Cyst of Bartholin’s gland—Urethral caruncle—Cervical polyp— 
Carcinoma; of vulva; of cervix. 

Acquired deformities. 

Relaxation of sphincter of bladder—Incontinence of childhood— 
Retention of urine—Catheterization—Prolapse of urethra—Old 
laceration of perineum—Prolapse of uterus—Fistula of vagina; of 
urethra. 

Congenital deformities. 

Adhesions of clitoris—Imperforate hymen—Stenosis of cervix. 


ft 


PAGE 

206 

208 

210 

225 

231 

236 

244 

255 

258 

260 

264 

270 

272 

277 




CONTENTS 


XV 


SECTION V 

AFFECTIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 

PAGE 

Chapter XI.—Injuries and Inflammations of the Anus and Rectum 

• Injuries.280 

Examination of patient—Stretching of sphincter ani—Wounds— 
Hemorrhage. 

Foreign bodies: Impacted feces. 2S6 

Acute inflammations.286 

Intertrigo — Pruritus — Proctitis — Fissure — Abscess—Fistula— 
Gonorrhea—Chancroid. 

Chronic inflammations.300 

Syphilis—Tuberculosis—Ulcer of Rectum—Stricture. 

Chapter XII. —Tumors and Deformities of the Anus and Rectum 

Tumors.307 

Venereal warts—Polyp—Hemorrhoids: Acute; chronic—Carcinoma 
—Sarcoma. 

Acquired deformities.318 

Prolapse: Acute; chronic—Rectal hernia—Incontinence of sphinc¬ 
ter ani. 

Congenital deformities.322 

Imperforate anus—Stricture. 


SECTION VI 

AFFECTIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 

Chapter XIII. —Injuries to the Soft Parts of the Arm and Hand 

Subcutaneous injuries.324 

Contusion—Blister—Hematoma—Rupture of muscle. 

Wounds.328 

Minute wounds—Ligation of vessels—Suture of tendons; of 
nerves—Wounds of joints. 

Foreign bodies.336 

Sprains.338 

Sprain of shoulder—Neuritis—Acute tenosynovitis: Serous syno¬ 
vitis—Bursitis. 

Chapter XIV. —Dislocations and Fractures of the Arm and Hand 

Dislocations.347 

Dislocation of shoulder; of elbow; of radius; of ulna—Subluxation 
of radius—Dislocation of wrist; of thumb—Overextension of 
thumb—Dislocation of finger—Drop-finger. 

Fractures.3(13 

Separation of epiphysis—Green-stick fracture—Fracture of 
humerus; of olecranon; of head of radius; of shaft of ulna or 
radius—Fracture. Colles’s; of carpus; of metacarpals; of phalanges 
—Compound fractures—Crushed fingers—Amputation of fingers. 





XVI 


CONTENTS 


Chapter XV.— Inflammations of the Arm and Hand 

Effects of heat and cold. 

Bums—Mangle injury—Frost-bite—Chilblains—Gangrene: Car¬ 
bolic, etc.; with cellulitis; diabetic. 

Acute inflammations. 

Infection in wounds—Anatomical tubercle—Dermatitis—Erysipe¬ 
las—Erysipeloid—Cellulitis—Boil—Paronychia: Acute; chronic— 
Thecitis—Suppurating synovitis—Arthritis—Bursitis—Lymphan- 
• gitis—Lymphadenitis—Eczema—Ulcer from vaccination. 

Arthritic and chronic inflammations. 

Rheumatism—Gonorrheal arthritis—Deforming arthritis—Gout 
—Syphilis—Tuberculosis of tendon sheaths; of joints—Osteo¬ 
myelitis. 

Chapter XVI.— Tumors and Deformities of the Arm and Hand 

Tumors. 

Ganglion—Aneurism—Varix—Inclusion cyst—Lipoma—Fibroma 
—Papilloma — Neurofibroma — Osteoma — Granuloma — Wart 
—Epithelioma—Sarcoma. 

Acquired deformities. 

Cicatricial contractions—Dupuytren’s contraction. 

Congenital deformities. 

Web-finger—Supernumerary finger—Hypertrophy of finger— 
Deficiency of finger—Too many accessory tendons. 


SECTION VII 

AFFECTIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 

Chapter XVII.— Injuries of the Leg and Foot 

Injuries. 

Contusions—Abrasions—B1 ister—II ematoma: Subungual; sub¬ 
periosteal—Rupture of vein; of tendon. 

Wounds. 

Wounds of joint; of tendon; of nerve. 

Bursitis . . •. 

Bursitis: Prepatellar; subgluteal; back of knee; under tendo 
Achillis; metatarsophalangeal—Serous synovitis—Floating cartil¬ 
age. 

Sprain. 

Sprain of hip; of knee; of ankle—Chronic synovitis—Rupture of 
ligament. 

Dislocation. 

Fractures. 

Fracture of femur; of patella; of tibia (non-union); of fibula; of 
lower end of tibia and fibula; of astragalus; of os calcis; of meta¬ 
tarsals; of phalanges. 

Amputation 


PAGE 

393 

399 

433 

445 

4G3 

467 


471 

475 

476 

486 

497 

497 


509 





CONTENTS 


Chapter XYIII.—Inflammations of the Leg and Foot 

Effects of heat and cold .... 

Frost-bite—Burns—Gangrene. 

Acute inflammation. 

Cellulitis—Lymphangitis—Phlebitis—Thrombosis—Lymphadeni¬ 
tis—Abscess—Pediculosis. 

Chronic and arthritic inflammations. 

Eczema — Ulcer — Perforating ulcer — Suppurating synovitis —- 
Rheumatism—Gonorrheal arthritis—Gout— Syphilis— Tuberculo¬ 
sis. 

Chapter XIX. —Tumors and Deformities of the Leg and Foot 

Tumors. 

Callus—Corn-—-Varicose veins—Aneurism —Ganglion— Sebaceous 
cyst—Lipoma—Fibroma—Osteoma—Sarcoma—Carcinoma. 

Acquired deformities. 

Twisted nail—Ingrown nail—Hallux valgus—Hallux rigidus— 
Hammer-toe—Flatfoot—Transverse flatfoot—Painful heel. 

Congenital deformities: Hypertrophy—Supernumerary toes—Vertical 
nails. 

Chapter XX. —Surgical Dressings 

Textile materials. 

Absorbent cotton—Lamb ’s wool—Gauze—Gauze sponges; strips ; 
bandages—Muslin—Flannel — Canton flannel—Stockinette—Silk 
—Rubber—Crinoline—Gutta-percha tissue—Oiled muslin, silk, 
and paper. 

Ligatures and sutures . 

Catgut: Plain; chromic—Kangaroo-tendon—Silk—Silkworm gut— 
Horsehair—Cotton and linen thread—Celluloid thread—Silver wire 

Drains. 

Glass and metal tubes—Soft rubber tubes—Gutta-percha drains 
—Cigarette drains—Gauze drains—Handkerchief drains—Horse¬ 
hair drains. 

Splints. 

Wood—Metal—Wire netting. 

Gypsum or plaster of Paris. 

Gypsum bandages — Circular splints — Cutting a fenestrum — 
Molded splints—Reenforcing a splint—Gypsum or plaster casts— 
Plaster jackets. 

Chapter XXI. —The Roller Bandage 

General principles. 

Preparation of a bandage—Application: Anchoring; spiral re¬ 
verse; overlapping of turns; figure of eight; the spica; amount 
of pressure; completion.. 

Bandages of head. 

1. Horizontal circular—2. Oblique circular—3. Double oblique cir¬ 
cular—4. Crossed circular-—5. Knotted—6. Figure of eight—7. 


xvii 

PAGE 

511 

514 

519 

537 

543 

561 

563 

571 

576 

580 

582 

596 

603 












CONTENTS 


• • • 
XVlll 


Single roller—8. Double roller—9. Partial recurrent—10. Figure 
of eight of one eye—11. Figure of eight of both eyes—12. Four¬ 
tailed of jaw—13. Barton’s of jaw—14. Gibson s of jaw 15. 
Figure of eight of forehead and chin. 

Bandages of the neck and axilla, alone and in combination . 

1G. Circular—17. Posterior figure of eight of head and neck—18. 
Anterior figure of eight of head and neck—19. Figure of eight of 
neck and axilla—20. Figure of eight of both axillae—21. Oblique 
circular of neck and axilla—22. Complete, of neck 23. Complete, 
of axilla—24. Anterior figure of eight of neck and chest. 

Bandages of the trunk. 

25. Anterior figure of eight of chest—2G. Posterior figure of eight 
0 f C h es t—27. Spiral of the chest—28. Spica of one breast—29. 
Spica of both breasts—30. Velpeau’s figure of eight of chest and 
shoulder—31. Desault’s of chest and shoulder o2. Descending 
spiral of abdomen—33. Many-tailed of abdomen. 

Bandages of the upper extremity 

34. Ascending spica of shoulder—35. Descending spica of shoulder 
—36. Spiral of arm—37. Concentric figure of eight of elbow 38. 
Eccentric figure of eight of elbow—39. Spiral reverse of forearm 
—40. Figure of eight of forearm—41. Figure of eight of hand— 
42. Spiral reverse of hand—43. Spica of thumb—44. Spiral reverse 
of finger—45. Figure of eight of finger—46. Gauntlet, or figure 
of eight of fingers and wrist—47. Recurrent of finger. 

Bandages of the lower extremity. 

48. Ascending spica of one groin—49. Descending spica of one 
groin—50. Ascending spica of both groins—51. Descending spica 
of both groins—52. Ascending spica of buttock—53. Crossed 
perineal—54. Spiral reverse of thigh—55. Concentric figure of 
eight of knee—56. Eccentric figure of eight of knee—57. Figure 
of eight of both knees—58. Figure of eight of the leg 59. Spiral 
reverse of leg—60. Figure of eight of ankle 61. 1 igure of eight 
of foot and leg—62. Eccentric figure of eight of heel—63. Modi¬ 
fied eccentric figure of eight of heel—64. Spica of foot 65. 
Circular of toe—66. Spica of great toe—67. Complex spica of 
great toe—68. Recurrent of stump. 


PAGE 


621 


634 


651 


665 


Chapter XXII.— General Anesthesia 

General remarks. 

Underlying principles—Confidence—Anesthesia in children By¬ 
standers — Physical examination — Preparation — Position — Re¬ 
straint—Place—Preliminary medication—Induction—Respiration 
—Pulse—Signs of surgical anesthesia. 

Complications during anesthesia. 

Compressed lips—Displaced jaw—Tongue—Excitement—Saliva 
in the pharynx—Vomiting—Muscular spasms—Cyanosis—Cessa¬ 
tion of respiration—Irregular heart action—Oxygen in anesthesia. 

Post-anesthetic conditions. 

Recovery from anesthesia—Nausea with vomiting—Shock—Per- 


690 


699 


707 







CONTENTS 


xix 


spiration—Death—Status lymphaticus—Acid intoxication—Bron¬ 
chitis and pneumonia—Records. 

Anesthetics. 

Nitrous-oxid gas—Primary or induction anesthesia with gas— 
Nitrous-oxid gas for prolonged anesthesia—Ether—Chloroform— 
Ethyl chlorid — Somnoform — Mixed anesthetics — Hypodermic 
anesthesia—Rectal anesthesia—Spinal analgesia—Choice of anes¬ 
thetic. 


SECTION VIII 

MINOR SURGICAL TECHNIQUE 

Chapter XXIII.— Operative Technique 

Conditions of operation. 

Asepsis—Operating room—Preparation of patient—Hands of the 
operator— Instruments —Solutions—Local anesthesia- 1 - Regional 
anesthesia—Spinal anesthesia. 

Treatment of the wound. 

Control of hemorrhage—Tying a ligature—Drainage—Sutures— 
Dressings: Dry gauze; cotton-collodion; wet; Carrel-Dakin treat¬ 
ment—Ointments—Paraffin wax—Forceps. 

Some typical operations. 

Opening an abscess — Removal of a tumor — Skin-grafting: 
Thiersch method; Wolfe method—Plastic operations. 

Operations upon bloodvessels. 

Withdrawal of blood for examination—Intravenous medication— 
Injection of salvarsan—Injection of dilated veins—Transfusion 
— Hypodermoelysis —Direct blood transfusion —Blood-letting — 
Cupping—Leeching—Vaccination. 

Operations upon nerves. 

Injections for neuralgia—Lumbar puncture. 

Vaccines and Serums. 


PAGE 

715 


751 

758 

771. 

777 

792 

801 


Index 


. 807 







LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


HEAD 


FIG. 

1. —Hematoma of ear from a blow. 

2. —Hematoma of ear from a blow, three weeks previous .... 

3. —Powder grains in face from a recent explosion. 

4. —Powder grains removed by scrubbing with a stiff brush 

5. —Instruments for extracting foreign bodies from the nose and ear 

6. —Division of Steno’s duct by a razor cut. 

7. —Fracture of right malar bone with depression. 

8. —Four-tailed bandage for fracture of the inferior maxilla 

9. —Necrosis and slough of skin due to cellulitis. 

10. —Abscess of the lip. 

11. —Alveolar abscess from upper incisor tooth. 

12. —Alveolar abscess from upper molar teeth. 

13. —Alveolar abscess from upper tooth, secondary in lymphatic gland , 

14. —Recurrent alveolar abscess. 

15. —Chronic alveolar abscess with sinus ....... 

16. —Chronic alveolar abscess; chronic edema; no sinus .... 

17. —Tumor following alveolar abscess; probably malignant 

18. —Sketch of the normal right tympanic membrane, showing the correct 

site for incision. 

19. —Angular knife for incision of tympanic membrane .... 

20. —Chancre of lip, of nine days’ duration. 

21. —Chancre of lip, of three weeks’ duration .. 

22. —Chancre of cheek, developing in burn from cigarette .... 

23 . —Chancre of cheek with a granulating ulcer. 

24. —Papilloma of lip due to syphilis.• 

25. —Tuberculosis of the gum, secondary to pulmonary tuberculosis . 

26. —Tense sebaceous cyst of forehead, about to rupture . . . . 

27. —Sebaceous cyst of scalp, skin prepared for operation .... 

28. —Sebaceous cyst of scalp, overlying skin divided and retracted . 

29. —Sebaceous cyst of scalp, collapsed redundant skin after removal of 

cyst. 

30. —Inflamed sebaceous cyst behind the ear. 

31. —Cyst of sublingual gland—ranula. 

32. —Dental cyst, mistaken for alveolar abscess . . . ... 

33. —Dermoid cyst of the nose. 

34. —Dermoid cyst in front of the ear. 

35. —Dermoid cyst behind the ear. 

36. —Papilloma of skin occurring in a scar, diagnosed as cancer 


PAGE 

4 

5 

7 

8 
11 
16 
18 
21 
34 
38 

40 

41 

42 
4 ? 

44 

45 

46 


52 

52 

60 

60 

61 

62 

63 

65 

67 

68 

69 

70 

70 

71 

73 

74 

75 
75 
77 














XXII 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG. 

37. —Lipoma of forehead.* 

38. —Fibrolipoma of auditory canal . . 

39. —Pulsating angioma of scalp; congenital; fully distended 

40. —Pulsating angioma of scalp, compressed • 

41. —Rosacea hypertrophica of the nose, of seven years’ duration 

42. —Rosacea hypertrophica of the nose, of four years duration 

43. —Same subject as Fig. 42, side view. 

44. —Same subject as Fig. 42, after two operations. 

45. —Same subject as Fig. 42, after two operations, side view . 

46. —Instruments for the removal of the tonsil. 

47. —Instruments for the removal of adenoids ..... 

48. —Exostosis of jaw. 

49. —Epithelioma of face near nose . 

50 —Epithelioma of the lip developing in a soft wart which had existed 

since childhood .. 

51 —Same subject as Fig. 50, three months after removal of the tumor . 

52—Epithelioma of the nose, recently growing rapidly .... 

53. —Epithelioma of the cheek existing two years. 

54. —Epithelioma of face. 

55. —Epithelioma of the scalp. 

56. —Epithelioma of lip, of four weeks’ duration. 

57. —Epithelioma of the tongue, showing milky white patches of leuco- 

plakia and papillomatous growths. 

58. —Longitudinal section of the epitheliomatous tongue in the median line 

59 . —Transverse section of the epitheliomatous tongue 

60. —Epithelioma of lower lip, of one year’s duration. 

61. —Epithelioma of lower lip, showing line of incisions .... 
62— Epithelioma of lower lip, showing suture after excision of the V- 

shaped piece. 

63. —Tumor of head, extradural. 

64. —Angiosarcoma of lower jaw. 

65. —Tumor of parotid gland, of twelve years’ duration . . . . 

66. —Diagram of the septum of the nose. 

67. —Scissors for the amputation of the uvula. 

68. —Harelip, the cleft, not entering the nostril. 

69. —Harelip, the cleft entering the nostril . . 

70. —Congenital cleft of lower lip.° 

71. —Cleft of lobe of auricle, congenital. 

72. —Deformity of ear, congenital .. 


NECK 


73. —Instruments for tracheotomy.° 

74. —Carbuncle of neck. 

75 . —Carbuncle of neck, of four weeks’ duration, incised three times 

76 . —Same patient as shown in Fig. 75, eleven weeks later . 

77. —Abscess of neck, secondary to pediculosis capitis . 

78. —Abscess under sternomastoid muscle, probably tubercular . 

79. —The primary lesion of anthrax. 

80. —Thyreoglossal cyst; operation; recurrence .... 


PAGE 

79 

80 
82 

83 

84 

85 

85 

86 
86 
88 

90 

91 
93 

93 

94 

95 

96 

96 

97 

98 

99 
99 

100 

101 

102 

102 

105 

105 

106 
109 
111 
113 

113 

114 
116 
116 


121 

128 

129 

129 

130 

131 

132 
136 












LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii 

FIG. PAGE 

81. —Simple lipoma of neck, of two years’ duration.138 

82. —Diffuse lipoma of neck, bilateral.138 

83. —Fibroma of the neck of nine years’ duration.• . 139 

84. —The tumor of Fig. 83 after removal.140 

85. —Single cyst of thyroid.146 

86. —Goiter with exophthalmos.146 

87. —Cicatricial contractions following burn of the neck .... 148 

88. —Torticollis (wryneck) of right side of moderate degree . . .149 

89. —Extreme degree of torticollis (wryneck).150 

90. —Back view of patient, shown in Fig. 89.150 

TRUNK 

91. —Large hematoma of mammary region, five weeks after a blow . . 153 

92. —Strips of adhesive plaster, gridiron pattern, for sprain of back . . 160 

93. —Strips of plaster applied diagonally, for sprain of back . . .160 

94. —Tests for injury of the spine. Forward flexion.161 

95. —Tests for injury of the spine. Backward flexion.161 

96. —Tests for injury of the spine. Lateral flexion.162 

97. —Tests for injury of the spine. Rotation.162 

98. —Fracture of left clavicle, usual situation.163 

99. —Sayre dressing for fracture of clavicle. Rear view . . . .165 

100. —Sayre dressing for fracture of clavicle. Front view .... 165 

101. —Multiple burns of body of five days’ duration, produced by spatter¬ 

ing liquid iron . 170 

102. —Instruments for drainage of chest in empyema.176 

103 . —Fibrolipomata of the back of five years’ duration . . . .185 

104. —Lipoma of back of two years’ duration.186 

105. —Lipoma shown in Fig. 104 after removal.187 

106. —Epithelioma of back at an early stage.190 

107. —Cross-section of tumor shown in Fig. 106.191 

108. —Melanosarcoma of lower abdomen of four months’ duration, growing 

from a mole or soft wart.191 

109. —Cyst under scapula of one week’s duration . . . . . .192 

HO.—Removal of displaced coccyx.193 

111. —Dorsal hernia.19° 

112. —Method of holding a trocar.200 

MALE GENITALS 

H 3 .—Edema of penis and scrotum from mercuric ointment . , 21.1 

114. —Abscess of scrotum of five days’ duration ...... 2K 

115. —A good type of steel sound.218 

116. —Eczema of penis of four months’duration.223 

117. —Primary lesion of syphilis in an aged patient.225 

118. —Unilateral syphilitic orchitis.227 

H9.—Gumma of testicle with ulceration.228 

120. —Cyst of prepuce; left inguinal hernia.231 

121. —Cyst of prepuce after circumcision.232 

122. —Squamous celled carcinoma of penis . 233 




















XXIV 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG. <*AGE 

123. —Hydrocele of four months’duration. . 237 

124. —Hydrocele of ten years’ duration; never treated.237 

125. —Varicocele of moderate degree.242 

126. —Varicocele of fourteen years’ duration.243 

127. —Tight phimosis; congenital.245 

128. —Operation for phimosis. Dorsal and ventral incisions . . . 248 

129. —Operation for phimosis. All sutures inserted.249 

FEMALE GENITALS 

130. —Urethroscope' for examining female urethra.259 

131. —Multiple syphilitic tumors of vulva.268 

132. —Syphilitic condyloma of thigh near the vulva.269 

133. —Pessaries for prolapse of uterus.276 

134. —Hard rubber plugs for use in stenosis of the cervix .... 279 

ANUS AND RECTUM 

135. —Suitable rectal speculum for office examination.282 

136. —Bivalve rectal speculum.283 

137. —Small superficial ischiorectal abscess.. 292 

138. —A larger and deeper ischiorectal abscess.293 

139. —Fistula accompanying a syphilitic stricture of the rectum . . . 296 

140. —Syphilitic condylomata about anus of a young male .... 300 

141. —Venereal warts about the anus of a man.307 

142. —Acute external hemorrhoid of one week’s duration .... 309 

143. —Internal hemorrhoids of sixteen years’ duration.312 

ARM AND HAND 

144. —Hematoma under nail.326 

145. —Incision for hematoma under nail.326 

146. —Diagram to show position of radial and ulnar arteries . . . 328 

147. —Test for division of the profundus tendon.330 

148. —Test for division of the sublimis tendon.330 

149. —Traumatic ulcers of the hand.331 

150. —Tendon suture. ( A ) Mattress stitch. (B) Simple stitch . . . 333 

151. —Tendon suture, one method of elongation of a tendon .... 333 

152. —Tendon suture, a long silk stitch being left in place .... 334 

153. —Nerve suture.335 

154. —Sprain of finger with serous effusion in joint.339 

155. —Plaster strapping for sprain of the thumb.340 

156. —Diagram to show the relations of the extensor tendons and the radius 343 

157. —Aspiration of shoulder-joint for synovitis.345 

158. —Acute olecranon bursitis.346 

159. —Dislocation of thumb of seven years’ duration.349 

160. —Radiograph showing the bones seven years after a dislocation of the 

thumb.349 

161. —Radiograph of forward dislocation of the head of the radius and 

fracture of the ulna.352 






















LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXV 

FIG. PAGE 

162. —Radiograph showing backward dislocation of both radius and ulna, 

about five months’ duration.353 

163. —Overextension of adult thumb.356 

164. —Posterior dislocation of finger with radiograph.357 

165. —Reduction of dislocated finger by operation.358 

166. —Lateral dislocation of finger, due to bite of horse.359 

167. —Radiograph of lateral dislocation of finger.359 

168. —Drop-finger.361 

169. —Traumatic drop-finger of three months’ duration.361 

170. —Radiograph of traumatic drop-finger, anteroposterior view . . 362 

171. —Radiograph of traumatic drop-finger, lateral view .... 362 

172. —Radiograph of fracture of the neck of the radius.376 

173. —Radiograph of fracture of neck of radius, side view .... 377 

174. —Molded gypsum splints for fracture of the lower end of the radius . 382 

175. —Molded gypsum splints applied.383 

176. —Old fracture of radius (Colies’) with marked deformity . . . 384 

177. —Fracture of second right metacarpal.385 

178. —Compound fracture of the forefinger.387 

179. —Injuries of the hand from contact with a buzz-saw .... 388 

180. —Amputation through the metacarpal phalangeal joint . . . 389 

181. —Amputation of finger with the head of the metacarpal . . . 390 

182. —Same hand as in Fig. 181; dorsal surface.390 

183 . —Amputation of two central fingers with the metacarpals . . .391 

184. —Same hand as in Fig. 183; dorsal surface.391 

185. —Partial gangrene of finger due to carbolic acid.395 

186. —Carbolic gangrene of distal half of finger.396 

187. —Carbolic gangrene of thumb, complicated by cellulitis . . . 397 

188. —Recovery following carbolic gangrene of thumb.398 

189. —Anatomical tubercle.400 

190. —Erysipeloid dermatitis in wound of hand of seven days’ duration . 401 

191. —Cellulitis of finger with abscess . .402 

192 . —Moist gangrene of finger, following cellulitis.* 403 

193 . —Boil of wrist with secondary pimples.405 

194 . _Section of the terminal segment of finger to show various sites of 

suppuration. 406 

195. —Abscess of tip of thumb with spontaneous rupture .... 406. 

196. —Acute paronychia of three weeks’ duration ...... 408 

197. —Acute paronychia, ten days after removal of old nail . . . .409 

198. —Chronic paronychia of four months’ duration.410 

199 . — Abscess in tendon sheath of thumb from a splinter . . . .411 

200. —Suppuration in index-finger extending into the palm . . . .414 

201. —Same subject as Fig. 200. Posterior view.415 

202. —Same subject as Fig. 200. Temperature chart.416 

203. —Same subject as Fig. 200. Ultimate result . . . . • • 416 

204. —Suppuration in tendon sheath of four weeks’ duration . . . 420 

205. —Same subject as Fig. 204. Dorsal view . . . • • • 4-0 

206. —Cicatricial contraction of finger following suppuration . . . 421 

207—Loss of extensor tendons from suppuration. ...... 422 

208. —Suppuration in joint following penetration by splinter . . • 422 

209. —Suppurative arthritis and loss of metacarpal.423 









XXVI 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG. PAGE 

210 . —Radiograph of a hand showing result of suppurative arthritis . . 424 

211 . —Tin splint for use in suppurative arthritis.426 

212 . —Suppurative olecranon bursitis.427 

213. —Infected wound of finger with secondary lymphatic abscess . . 428 

214. —Superficial axillary abscess from infection about hairs . . . 430 

215. —Primary lesion of syphilis developing in the finger .... 436 

216. —Syphilitic ulcer of the hand of four months’ duration .... 436 

217. —Same hand as Fig. 216, after four weeks of treatment . . . 437 

218. —Chronic syphilitic inflammation of hand with sinus .... 437 

219. —Syphilis of hand with amputation of a finger.438 

220 . —Tuberculosis of flexor tendon sheaths of hand . . . • . . 439 

221 . —Tenosynovitis, probably tubercular.440 

222 . —Diagram to show the range of motion in a joint.441 

223. —Tuberculosis of the wrist with sinus.442 

224. —Ganglion of wrist of five years’ duration. 445 

225. —Ganglion of wrist, lateral view.446 

226. —Ganglion of the wrist, the skin incised and dissected .... 447 

227. —Ganglion of the wrist, showing ligation of the sac .... 448 

228. —Nevus of hand of seven years’ duration. 449 

229. —Extensive varices of the arm and hand.450 

230. —Inclusion cyst of palm.451 

231. —Simple lipoma of arm. 451 

232. —Fibrosarcoma of finger, of six years’ duration.452 

233. —Radiograph of fibrosarcoma of finger showing normal bone . . 453 

234. —Fibroma of hand. 453 

235. —Fibrolipoma of wrist—papilloma. 454 

236. —Osteoma of finger. 455 

237. —Radiograph of osteoma of finger, showing affected bone . . . 456 

238 . —Fibrolipoma of finger.. 

239. —Radiograph of the same hand, showing normal bones .... 457 

240. —Granuloma of finger.. 

241. —Old wart of index-finger. 459 

242. —Metastatic carcinoma of the bones of the hand.460 

243. —Same patient as shown in Fig. 242, showing the site of the original 

tumor, and numerous cutaneous metastases.461 

244. —Spindle-cell sarcoma of hand of ten years’ duration .... 462 

245. —Cicatricial contractions from burns. 454 

246. —A quick method ot lengthening a tendon without suture . . . 464 

247. —Dupuytren’s contraction of six months’ duration .... 465 

248. —Radiograph of the webbed hand of an infant ... . 466 

249. —Web-fingers of a child. _ 497 

250. —Result after operation for web-fingers. 467 

251. —Supernumerary thumb. 4 gg 

252. —Radiograph of supernumerary thumb. # 469 

LOWER EXTREMITY 

253. —Hematoma of foot produced by turning the ankle .... 472 

254. —Hematoma under left great toe-nail. . 470 

255. —Subperiosteal hematoma of the head of the tibia. 473 













LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


XXV11 


no. page 

256. —Prepatellar bursitis.477 

257. —Suppuration in prepatellar bursa, with rupture of the skin . . 478 

258. —Chronic prepatellar bursitis; the bursa laid open.479 

259. —Operation for chronic prepatellar bursitis.480 

260. —Inflammation of the outer metatarsophalangeal bursa . . . 482 

261. —Floating cartilage from the knee-joint.485 

262. —Incision for removal of floating cartilage from the knee . . . 486 

263. —Relation of the great trochanter to the ilium.488 

264. —Demonstration of floating patella.490 

265. —Strapping with adhesive plaster for sprain of the knee . . . 493 

266. —Strapping a sprained ankle with adhesive plaster .... 495 

267. —Radiograph showing fracture of the great trochanter .... 498 

268. —Application of adhesive plaster for fracture of patella .... 499 

269. —Correct method of holding foot and leg during the application of a 

splint—in cases of malleolar fracture.505 

270. —Strap splints for fracture of malleoli—in position .... 506 

271. —Strap splints for fracture of malleoli—removed.506 

272. —Frost-bite of both feet three weeks after injury.511 

273. —Frost-bite of both feet; the results after treatment . . . .512 

274. —Burns of the back of the leg and thigh.513 

275. —Gangrene of toe—possibly from frost-bite.514 

276. —Abscess in front of the knee from infection on the skin . . . 517 

277. —Ulcers of the leg from pediculosis and scratching.518 

278. —Ulcer of the leg.519 

279. —Chronic ulcer almost encircling the leg ....... 520 

280. —Ulcer of leg, spread by a vaseline dressing.522 

281. —Chronic ulcer of the leg with proliferation.525 

282. —Ulcers of leg due to syphilis.527 

283. —Traumatic ulcer of the leg exposing the tibia.529 

284. —Perforating ulcers of the foot.530 

285. —Perforating ulcers of the toes of two years’ duration .... 531 

286. —Dorsal view of the same patient as shown in Fig. 285 .... 531 

287. —Osteoma of the tibia.541 

288. —Osteoma under the nail of the great toe.541 

289. —Sarcoma of the great toe from injury.543 

290. —Carcinoma of the leg developing in an old ulcer.543 

291. —Twisted nails..544 

292. —Longitudinal and transverse sections of great toe showing the nail, 

matrix, phalanx, and joint.545 

293. —Ingrown nail.546 

294. —Drawings to illustrate operation for ingrown nail.547 

295. —Great toe after operation for ingrown nail.548 

296. —Great toe ten days after operation for ingrown nail .... 549 

297. —Hallux valgus.550 

298. —Hallux valgus with hypertrophy of the head of the metatarsal, sup¬ 

purative bursitis and synovitis.551 

299. —Lateral splint for holding the toe after operation for hallux valgus . 553 

300. —Interwoven adhesive strips for correcting the deformity of hammer¬ 

toe after operation.555 

301. —Testing the degree of rigidity in flatfoot.557 













XXV111 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG. PAGE 

302. —Markedly rigid flatfeet put up in corrected position .... 559 

303. —Congenital hypertrophy of the second toe.5(31 

304. —Vertical nails.. • 5(32 

SURGICAL DRESSINGS 

305. —Two yards of gauze cut and folded to make twenty-four gauze 

sponges.. • • • 4 • • 566 

306. —Angular splint made from wire netting.581 

307_Making gypsum bandages from crinoline.584 

308. —Making a “dart” in a gypsum bandage.586 

309. —Making a cast of a foot in gypsum.593 

310. —Cast of foot in gypsum: the mold removed.594 

ROLLER BANDAGE 

311. —Rolling a bandage on a small machine.597 

312. —Making a reverse in a spiral bandage . ..599 

313. —Making a figure of eight turn about the forearm .... 600 

314. —Fastening a bandage by splitting the end and tying .... 602 

315. —Occipitofrontal bandage of the head.603 

316. —Oblique circular bandage of the head.604 

317. —Double oblique circular bandage of the head.605 

318. —The crossed circular bandage.606 

319. —Knotted bandage of the head.607 

320. —Figure of eight bandage of the head.608 

321. —Single roller bandage of the head.609 

322. —Single roller bandage of the head completed.610 

323. —Double roller bandage of the head.612 

324. —Double roller bandage of the head completed.612 

325. —Partial recurrent bandage of the head.613 

326. —Figure of eight bandage of one eye.614 

327. —Figure of eight bandage of both eyes.616 

328. _Four-tailed bandage of the jaw.617 

329. —Barton’s bandage, with first layer completed.618 

330. —Gibson’s bandage for the lower jaw.619 

331. —Gibson’s bandage completed.620 

332 . —Figure of eight bandage of the forehead and chin .... 620 

333. —Circular bandage of neck.622 

334. —Posterior figure of eight bandage of head and neck .... 622 

335 . —Anterior figure of eight bandage of the head and neck . . . 623 

336. —Figure of eight bandage of neck and axilla.624 

337 . —Figure of eight bandage of neck and axilla with additional turns . 625 

338 . —Figure of eight bandage of both axillae.626 

339 . —Oblique circular bandage of the neck and axilla.627 

340. —Complete bandage of the neck at an early stage .... 629 

341. —Complete bandage of the neck in skeleton form.630 

342 . —Complete bandage of the axilla, composed of six parts . . .632 















LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxix 

FIG * PAGE 

343. —Anterior figure of eight bandage of the neck and chest . . .633 

344. —Anterior figure of eight bandage of chest.635 

345. —Posterior figure of eight bandage of chest.636 

346—Descending spiral bandage of the chest.637 

347. —Descending spiral bandage of the chest completed .... 638 

348. —Spica bandage of one breast.639 

349. —Spica bandage of one breast completed.640 

350. —Spica bandage of both breasts . .641 

351. —Spica bandage of both breasts nearing completion .... 642 

352. —Velpeau’s bandage, showing the first turn.643 

353. —Velpeau’s bandage at the beginning of second oblique turn . . 644 

354. —Velpeau’s bandage nearly completed.645 

355. —Desault’s bandage, showing the spiral of the chest .... 640 

356. —Desault’s bandage, showing the fixation of the arm to the chest . 646 

357. —Desault’s bandage, showing the application of the third roller . . 647 

358. —Desault’s bandage completed.648 

359. —Descending spiral bandage of abdomen.649 

360. —Posterior view of many tailed bandage of abdomen .... 650 

361. —Anterior view of many tailed bandage of abdomen .... 650 

362. —Ascending spica bandage of the shoulder.652 

363. —Descending spica bandage of shoulder.C53 

364 Ascending spiral bandage of the upper arm.653 

365. — Concentric figure of eight bandage of the elbow.654 

366. —Eccentric figure of eight bandage of the elbow.C55 

367. —Spiral reverse bandage of forearm 650 

368. —Figure of eight bandage of forearm in application .... 657 

369. —Figure of eight bandage of forearm completed.657 

370. —Figure of eight bandage of the hand.658 

371. —Spiral reverse bandage of the hand.659 

372. —Spica bandage of the thumb.660 

373. —Spiral reverse bandage of the finger.661 

374. —Figure of eight bandage of finger.062 

375. —Figure of eight bandage of the fingers and hand, the ‘ ‘ gauntlet ’ ’ . 663 

376. —Recurrent bandage of the finger.064 

377. —Recurrent bandage of the finger at a later stage . . . .665 

378. —Ascending spica bandage of one groin.066 

379. —Ascending spica bandage of one groin completed . . . .067 

380. —Ascending spica bandage of both groins.068 

381. —Ascending spica bandage of the buttock.069 

382. _Ascending spica bandage of the buttock completed .... 670 

383. —Crossed bandage of the perineum in application . . . .671 

384. —Crossed bandage of the perineum at a later stage . . . . 6<2 

385. —Spiral reverse bandage of the thigh.073 

3 8 6 —Spiral reverse bandage of thigh completed . . . • • • 6 J 3 

387. —Concentric figure of eight bandage of knee.6^4 

388. —Concentric figure of eight bandage of knee completed . . • 0^5 

389 . —Eccentric figure of eight bandage of knee.0^6 

390. —Figure of eight bandage of both knees.077 

391 . —Figure of eight bandage of the leg.0/8 

t 












XXX 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG. PAGE 

392. —Spiral reverse bandage of the leg.679 

393. —Figure of eight bandage of the ankle.680 

394. —Figure of eight bandage of foot and leg.681 

395. —Figure of eight bandage of foot and leg, at a later stage . . 681 

396. —Figure of eight bandage of the foot and leg completed . . . 682 

397. —Eccentric figure of eight bandage of heel.683 

398. —Modified eccentric figure of eight bandage of heel .... 684 

399. —Spica bandage of foot.685 

400. —Spica bandage of the great toe.686 

401. —Complex spica bandage of the great toe.687 

GENERAL ANESTHESIA 

402. —Wooden wedge for prying open the jaw . . . . . 698 

403. —Two types of mouth gag.699 

404. —Suction apparatus to keep throat free from blood and saliva . .702 

405. —Chloroform may be administered with smelling salts . . . .705 

406. —Simple apparatus for giving nitrous-oxid gas.717 

407. —Gwathmey’s apparatus for giving warmed nitrous-oxid gas and 

oxygen.721 

408. —Gas-oxygen apparatus with attachments for four cylinders on a 

foot plate.722 

409. —Apparatus for giving gas and ether, or ether by the closed or open 

method.727 

410. —Junker’s apparatus for giving chloroform vapor attached to a 

hollow Esmarch mask.732 

411. —Gwathmey’s three-bottle modification of Junker’s apparatus for 

giving warm ether or choloroform vapor.733 

412. —Gwathmey’s apparatus turned upside down and the bottles removed 734 

413. —Alcock’s apparatus for giving a known percentage of chloroform 

vapor.735 

414. —Dubois’s apparatus for giving known percentages of chloroform 

vapor. 735 

415. —Miller’s apparatus for vapor anesthesia.749 

OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 

416. —Injection of cocain for local anesthesia.755 

417. —Method of tying ligatures.757 

418. —Drains for clean and suppurating wounds.760 

419. —Glover’s needles No. 8 threaded with No. 150 cotton . . .763 

420. —Method of bending straight glover’s needle over flame . . . 763 

421. —Silk and horsehair in straight and curved skin needles . . .764 

422. —Sherman’s paraffin atomizer, for use in burns.769 

423. —Withdrawal of blood from a vein for examination .... 778 

424. —Correct position of the needle in the vein.778 

425. —Glass syringe and needle for spinal puncture.779 

426. —Gangrene following injection of neosalvarsan.780 

427. —Simple apparatus for the injection of salvarsan . . . .781 

















LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


XXXI 


FIG - PAGE 

428. —Apparatus for administration of salvarsan (Brayton) . . . 782 

429. —Thrombosis of internal saphenous vein following treatment by 

carbolic acid injection.784 

430. —Radial artery exposed and divided.788 

431. —Cephalic vein exposed and incised.789 

432. —Syringe, stylet and needle for trifacial injection .... 793 

433—Needle punctures in relation to the bones of the face . . . 794 

434. —Injection of the superior maxillary nerve, side view . . . 796 

435. —Injection of the superior maxillary nerve, front view . . . 796 

436. —Injection of the inferior maxillary nerve, side view .... 797 

437. —Injection of the inferior maxillary nerve, front view . . . 797 

438. —Lumbar puncture: diagrammatic sagittal section of the spine . 798 

439. —Lumbar puncture: transverse section of the spine .... 798 

440. —Lumbar puncture: the lumbar spine as seen from behind . . 799 







SECTION I 

AFFECTIONS OF THE HEAD 


CHAPTER I 

INJURIES OF THE HEAD 

General Considerations. —It is sometimes difficult to deter¬ 
mine the extent of an injury to the head either from the history 
of the accident or from the symptoms. The following two cases 
from the author’s experience will illustrate this fact: 

A girl fell backward down some stone steps, striking her head 
on the edge of one of them. Blood flowed freely from a wound 
in the scalp, and she walked to the hospital to have it dressed. 
There was no shock, nor any other symptom indicating that she 
had suffered serious injury, and yet retraction of the edges of the 
wound showed that there was a compound depressed fracture of 
the skull. 

A man of middle age, pushed by a horse, fell against a sloping 
bank of earth. He was apparently uninjured except for an insig¬ 
nificant contusion of the head. Yet subsequent events showed that 
this slight accident had ruptured a blood-vessel within the skull, 
as a result of which, many days afterward, the first symptoms 
of paralysis developed and progressed to complete unconsciousness. 

Such cases are a warning against a hasty diagnosis in head 
injuries. Every patient whose head has been injured should be 
carefully examined, and kept under observation for two or three 
days, as otherwise serious complications are likely to be over¬ 
looked. This is especially important if no clear history of the 
accident can be obtained, either because the patient is suffering 
from intoxication or for any other reason. 

Contusions. —The scalp is firm and well protected by hair 
from external injury. It is loosely attached to the skull, but the 

absence of fatty tissue between it and the bone makes it more 

1 



2 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


liable to suffer in the case of a sharp blow. A contusion of the 
scalp may or may not be accompanied by a great deal of edema. 
If the swelling is discrete and evenly curved it is usually due to 
the pouring out of blood underneath the scalp, a hematoma (p. 2). 
The eyelids, nose, and lips are all frequently the seat of contusion, 
with marked ecchymosis. 

Treatment. —If the patient is seen soon after the accident, 
very hot, wet compresses (p. 7 ) should be applied and bandaged 
in place with moderate pressure in order to relieve pain and pre¬ 
vent edema and hemorrhage. Later, a wet dressing of acetate 
of aluminum, four per cent solution, may be applied to prevent 
infection and facilitate recovery. The hair, even of a man, should 
not be needlessly sacrificed. In many cases a patient is mortified 
by the appearance of a black eye, and desires to have the normal 
color of the skin restored as quickly as possible. The hot, moist 
applications are of benefit, and in a day or two they should be fol¬ 
lowed by very gentle massage in the. direction of the lymph cur¬ 
rent. Considerable improvement in appearance may be obtained 
by painting the blackened area with oxid of zinc ointment and 
dusting it with a little face powder to remove the shiny appearance 
which the ointment causes. A far better result is obtained by 
painting the black eye with theatrical face paint; a medium 
brown and a light pink, mixed in varying proportions, will match 
the color of almost any skin. It may be applied with a brush, or 
with a firmly twisted cotton applicator. 

Subconjunctival Ecchymosis.—Blows upon the eye may be fol¬ 
lowed by an accumulation of blood beneath the conjunctiva, either 
of an eyelid or of the eyeball, frequently extending as far as 
the iris. Such a hemorrhage, due to rupture of a small blood¬ 
vessel, also occurs as a result of violent coughing or straining, espe¬ 
cially in persons past middle life. It is also a symptom of frac¬ 
ture of the skull, in which case the blood trickles through a wall 
of the orbit and collects beneath the conjunctiva. Blood beneath 
the conjunctiva of the eyeball is so freely supplied with oxygen 
that it remains a bright red. Treatment has little effect in hasten¬ 
ing the resorption of the extravasated blood, which usually requires 
from ten days to two weeks. 

Hematoma.—Hemorrhage occurring beneath the scalp or be¬ 
neath the periosteum, sufficiently free to produce a hematoma, is 




HEMATOMA 


3 


most common at those points at which the scalp is most exposed 
to blows, viz., over the parietal, frontal, and occipital bones, about 
where a man’s hat touches his head. The surface of a hematoma 
is even and rounded. If small, the swelling rises more sharply 
from the surrounding surface than if extensive. Edema of the 
skin may be slight or wholly wanting. Fluctuation can usually 
be obtained. The overlying skin may be discolored by an accom¬ 
panying contusion, but even if this is absent the hematoma will 
have a bluish look, due to the underlying blood. Absorption of 
so large a quantity of blood takes place very slowly, but the scalp 
is so abundantly supplied with blood-vessels that necrosis of the 
skin rarely follows. However, the time of recovery will be much 
shortened by removal of the effused blood. Suppuration is an 
occasional complication in both operated and non-operated patients. 

Treatment. —Removal of the effused blood may be accom¬ 
plished by aspiration if the contents are sufficiently fluid, or the 
fluid and clotted blood may be turned out through a small incision. 
The head should be prepared by a careful washing with hot water 
and soap, and then with alcohol. If an incision is to he made it 
is better to shave a small area, but if sufficient care is given to 
cleansing the scalp and hair in the vicinity, primary union may 
be obtained without this. A scalpel, clamps, two small hooked 
retractors, thumb-forceps, and scissors are the only instruments 
needed. They should be boiled before using. The skin is divided, 
one side of the wound is elevated with a retractor or with for¬ 
ceps, and the clotted blood is thoroughly wiped out with pieces of 
absorbent cotton wrung out in weak bichloride of mercury solu¬ 
tion (1: 5,000). The fingers of the operator should not come in 
contact with the wound. The edges of the incision should then be 
drawn together with sutures of fine black silk or horsehair, and a 
firm dressing of dry, sterile gauze applied to keep the involved tis¬ 
sue planes in contact and to prevent exudation. A similar dressing 
should be applied after aspiration. The dressing should be 
changed on the following day and the pressure kept up for several 
days. The blood in a recent hematoma is not easily aspirated. 

Whether or not drainage is required will depend upon circum¬ 
stances. A folded gutta-percha drain, if removed in two days, does 
not materially delay union, and leaves no scar. Such a drain 
should be inserted at the time of operation, if it seems likely that 
3 


4 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 



the blood will reaccumulate. It should certainly be inserted at 
the first dressing, if the wound was not drained at operation, and 
there has been a partial reaccumulation of blood. 

Hematoma in the New Born. —Blood often collects between the 
periosteum and the skull of a child that is delivered by forceps. 
It may be difficult to distinguish between a hematoma of this char¬ 
acter and a contusion with edema. Two or three days later, when 
the edema of the scalp has subsided, but a fluctuating swelling 
persists beneath it, the diagnosis is clear. This effused blood 
should be evacuated through a small incision, in the manner de¬ 
scribed above, because its resorption is very slow and because the 
periosteum lifted from the skull continues to form new bone. In 
this manner in some cases a prominent and permanent thickening 
of the skull develops. Hence the desirability of removing the blood 
as soon as possible, and of keeping the loosened periosteum pressed 

against the skull for a few 
days until it reattaches itself. 
Hematoma of Ear (Boxer’s 

Ear). — Blows upon the ear 
may give rise to hemorrhage 
beneath the perichondrium. 
The effused blood causes a 
rounded fluctuating tumor 
(Figs. 1 and 2) which may 
stretch the ear far bevond its 
normal size and completely 
change its appearance, .or it 
may be confined to a small 
portion of the pinna (Fig. 2). 
It is more often anterior than 
posterior. Absorption of the 
effused blood is extremely 
slow, and the tumor should 
therefore be promptly incised, 
the blood clots thoroughly re¬ 
moved, and the wound su¬ 
tured. The skin of the ear has a good blood supply, and wounds 
in it heal promptly if the edges are accurately approximated by 
sutures. 


» 




Fig. 1.—Hematoma of Ear from a Blow. 
The perichondrium is lifted over a con¬ 
siderable portion of the pinna. 








HEMORRHAGE FROM THE NOSE 


5 


Hemorrhage from the Nose. —Hemorrhage from the nose, 
or epistaxis, may follow a blow either with or without fracture of 
the nasal bones, or it may result from picking at the nose or the 
removal of dried secretion. It 
is one of the forms of vicari¬ 
ous menstruation. It is also 
a symptom of tuberculosis, of 
syphilis and malignant tu¬ 
mors, and of many fevers. It 
is one of the signs of fracture 
of the base of the skull. 

The blood may flow in 
drops or in a steady stream, 
or occasionally it may he seen 
to spurt from an artery of the 
septum. 

Treatment.- —In the ma¬ 
jority of instances the hemor¬ 
rhage will cease spontaneously 
in a few minutes. The pa¬ 
tient should not lean forward 
nor lie upon his face. The 
head should he held erect, or 
it should he bent slightlv hack- 
ward, so that the blood may 
accumulate and form a clot in 
the nostril. If the blood tric¬ 
kles into the naso-pharynx, it should be quietly expectorated. The 
patient should avoid any attempt to clear the nostrils by blowing. 
The application of cold in the shape of ice or some metallic object, 
like a large door-key, to the back of the neck is a well-tried house¬ 
hold remedy which has often proved effective. The holding of ice 
in the mouth or snuffing ice-water up into the nostrils may also 
suffice to stop the bleeding. Many popular remedies have doubt¬ 
less won fame because of the tendency of the hemorrhage in most 
cases to cease in a few minutes. In adults of a plethoric type fre¬ 
quent nosebleed seems to be really beneficial by reducing the ten¬ 
sion in the arteries. There are cases, however, in which the hemor¬ 
rhage is alarming, and the patient may even he in danger of 



Fig. 2.—Small Hematoma of Ear Fol¬ 
lowing a Blow Three Weeks Pre¬ 
vious. Patient a man aged forty-one 
years. 





6 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


bleeding to death. In other cases the bleeding is so annoying that 
it becomes desirable to check it at once. 

To check the hemorrhage the nostril from which the hemor¬ 
rhage comes should be sponged clean and a systematic search made 
for the bleeding point. The head should be tipped back to allow 
the blood to flow out of the posterior nares. In this manner the 
anterior nares can be carefully inspected. The bleeding point will 
often be found low down upon the septum, about half an inch • 
above the floor of the nasal passage and half an inch or more from 
the anterior orifice. Here it may be touched with a chemical 
caustic or by a hot probe, the shaft of which has been wrapped 
in order to avoid burning the tip of the nose, or by the finest point 
of a thermo-cautery. By far the best styptic is adrenalin or the 
extract of the suprarenal gland. Cotton moistened with this 
should be applied to the bleeding spot, or a dilute solution 
(1: 10,000) may be snuffed up the nostril. Peroxide of hydro¬ 
gen is another excellent styptic. 

If the bleeding cannot be stopped in one of the ways mentioned, 
it may be necessary to plug the nasal cavity through the anterior 
nares. A narrow strip of gauze about two feet long is soaked with 
peroxide of hydrogen and squeezed dry. The anterior nares is 
dilated and the end of the strip passed w 7 ell back in the nose with 
slender forceps. The packing is continued from behind forwmrd 
until the cavity has been filled. Should this packing fail to con¬ 
trol the hemorrhage, the gauze should be withdrawn and the pos¬ 
terior nares plugged. This disagreeable procedure is best accom¬ 
plished by passing through the anterior nares a catheter or small 
rubber tube, through the eye of which a thread has been drawn. 
As the catheter appears in the pharynx the thread can be caught 
with a hook and one end of it drawn out of the mouth. The 
catheter is then withdrawn, the string remaining in position 
through the nose and out of the mouth. A specially devised in¬ 
strument for this purpose, known as Bellocq’s canula, has a curved 
spring which carries the thread forward beneath the soft palate, * 
thus making its extraction more easy. When the string is once 
in position, a pledget of cotton may be tied to the end which 
emerges from the mouth, and passed well into the posterior nares 
by drawing the string through the nose. The anterior nares 
should then be plugged with gauze or cotton. Both ends of the 


ABRASIONS 


7 


string should he secured by tying them together or fastening 
them on the cheek by adhesive plaster. Otherwise there may 
be difficulty in removing the posterior plug. This procedure is at 
best a clumsy method of stopping hemorrhage, and should not he 
resorted to unless other measures fail. 

When once a clot has formed and hemorrhage has ceased, both 
patient and physician should for a day or two resist the tempta¬ 
tion to remove the tampon until the secretions of the nose lift it 
from the surface of the mucous membrane, so that it can he ex¬ 
tracted easily and without starting fresh hemorrhage. After that, 
gentle irrigation with a weak alkaline solution should he employed 
to cleanse the nostril. 

Abrasions. —Abrasions of the scalp and face are of impor¬ 
tance as possible sources of infection. Abrasions of the face are 
important also because 
they may contain par¬ 
ticles of sand, coal dust, 
etc., which healing in 
the wound may perma¬ 
nently disfigure the pa¬ 
tient. Hence the neces¬ 
sity that all abrasions 
of the head should be 
cleansed thoroughly and 
then covered with gauze 
moistened with a weak 
antiseptic, such as alu- 
minum acetate (four 
per cent solution) or 
creolin (1:200) held 
in place by a gauze 
bandage. The dressing 
should be moistened 
with cold water every 

. , rj? i u . Fig. 3. —Powder Grains in Face from a Re- 

two hours. If kept CENT Explosion. 

moist in this way the 

dressing can be changed every day without irritating the wound. 
It is more easy to keep a wound of the scalp clean if a border an 
inch wide has been shaved around it. In a day or two the lisk of 






8 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 



infection will have passed, and the abrasions may be allowed to 
dry, or they may be covered by boracic acid ointment until new 
epithelium has formed. 

Removal of Powder Grains. —In abrasions of the face the sur¬ 
geon’s attention should be directed to the removal of every particle 

of dirt, as insoluble sub¬ 
stances, such as grains 
of sand, may be covered 
over by epithelium and 
form permanent colored 
marks in the skin, like 
tattooing. This is es¬ 
pecially the case with 
powder grains. These 
are so small and soft 
and numerous that it is 
hopeless to attempt to 
pick them out one by 
one. It is most impor¬ 
tant, however, that they 
be removed. It is best 
to give the patient an 
anesthetic and then to 
scrub the wounded area 
with a stiff brush until 

Fig. 4.—Powder Grains Removed by Scrubbing every trace of powder 

with a Stiff Brush white the Patient is i i , 

Fully Etherized. All the grains were re- been Scraped away 

moved in this manner. The dark spots in the (FigS. 3 and 4) for 

photograph are the slight resultant wounds. . . ’ 

There was no permanent scar. Once the skin lias healed 


over them it is impos¬ 
sible to get them all out by cutting or caustics without leaving 
marked scars. 


Foreign Bodies. —Foreign bodies frequently lodge in the eye, 
ear, nose, or mouth, and the rules for their extraction vary in these 
different situations. Foreign bodies in wounds are described on 
page 14. 

Foreign Bodies in the Eye.— A patient will usually make the 
diagnosis of a foreign body in the eye by a feeling of pain or dis¬ 
comfort. Frequently be can locate a small foreign body with great 




FOREIGN BODIES 


9 


exactness, although usually unable to say whether it is in the 
eyelid or eyeball. 

The eye should be examined in a good light, first by direct 
light, and then if the foreign body is not discovered, by side light. 
The lower lid should be depressed to permit examination of the 
lower half of the eye. The patient should then be directed to look 
downward. The eyelashes of the upper lid are seized, and the lid 
is everted by lifting its lower edge outward and upward at the same 
time that the upper margin of the tarsal cartilage is depressed with 
the tip of a finger, or with the end of a glass rod or pencil. 

When the foreign body is discovered, it may be wiped away 
with a bit of absorbent cotton wrung out of saline solution, or 
out of a solution of boracic acid ; or it may be removed with a blunt 
instrument, such as a spud or a match whittled to a not too fine 
point. 

If the cinder or minute particle of steel or glass is embedded 
in the cornea, it is well to drop a little weak cocain solution (one 
or two per cent) into the eye to assist the patient in keeping the 
eyeball quiet while the operator works out every particle of the 
foreign body. 

Most writers upon diseases of the eye advocate the use of fairly 
strong antiseptics for the purpose of disinfecting the wound in 
which the foreign body lay. This method of treatment was for¬ 
merly advocated in the case of larger wounds of the body, but it is 
now pretty generally understood by surgeons that such solutions 
have little effect other than that of the fluid itself. The rational 
procedure, therefore, is to bathe the eye with a weak antiseptic, 
such as a half saturated solution of boracic acid, or a normal 
saline solution every two or three hours, and to trust to the 
antiseptic action of the tears and of the internal fluids of the 
body to protect the eye from infection. Pain is much relieved 
by the application of ice cloths, and protection of the eye from 
strong light. 

If the foreign body has penetrated more deeply into the eye 
than the cornea, the aim of treatment is to remove it with as little 
damage to the eyeball as possible. A patient with such a serious 
lesion should be treated from the first by a specialist when circum¬ 
stances permit. Some writers upon the eye praise the use of a 
magnet for the removal of bits of steel and iron, while others say 


10 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


that it is of no use, even when such a foreign body is situated 
superficially. 

Foreign Bodies in the Ear and Nose.—Beans, shoe buttons, and 
other objects are poked into the ear or nose by children. If they 
are smooth they may set up no irritation, but generally there is 
enough swelling of the mucous membrane to reduce the size of the 
opening and make their extraction difficult. If a foreign body is 
sharp, so that the mucous membrane is broken, either at the time 
or later, there will be a continuous discharge from the affected 
nostril, or from the ear, as the case may be. A persistent uni¬ 
lateral nasal discharge in the case of a child always suggests a 
foreign body. 

The amount of pain varies in different cases, according to the 
situation, size, and shape of the article, and the amount of injury 
done at the time of its entrance. 

The diagnosis may be suspected from the history or symptoms, 
but it rests chiefly upon the results of direct inspection through a 
suitable speculum. If the patient is a young child, complete anes¬ 
thesia is desirable for this examination as well as for subsequent 
treatment. 

Treatment. —It is absolutely necessary that the patient’s head 
should be still during attempts at extraction even if general anes¬ 
thesia has to be employed to accomplish this object. If the foreign 
body is one which may be firmly grasped with mouse-tooth for¬ 
ceps, it can be slowly and steadily extracted. The necessary in¬ 
struments are shown in Figure 5. If the foreign body is smooth 
and hard as, for instance, a round glass bead, a bit of shoe¬ 
maker’s wax may be utilized to obtain a hold upon it, or a probe 
or blunt hook of bent wire may be passed alongside of it. Light 
substances, such as insects, may possibly be floated out of the 
ear on the surface of olive oil poured into the meatus. This 
is also a good way to drown an insect, and stop its motions in 
the ear. 

One of the commonest foreign bodies the surgeon is called upon 
to extract from the ear is a mass of ear-wax. Formally the wax 
which is secreted in the ear works outward as a thin, hollow cylin¬ 
der, the outer edges of which dry up and break off in scales. If 
an overzealous individual attempts to free his ear of wax by means 
of a slender cone, for example, the twisted corner of a wet towel, 


FOREIGN BODIES 


11 


it sometimes happens that the edges of the thin cylinder of wax 
are pushed inward from time to time until a large ball of wax is 
formed. This is not usually noticed until some jar dislodges it 
and it falls against the drum-membrane, causing a constant buzz- 



Fig. 5. —Instruments for the Extraction of Foreign Bodies from the Nosh 
and Ear: A, Cotton carriers made of flattened copper wire; B, Pure silver slender 
probe; C, Ear specula; D, Nasal speculum; E, Forceps bent at a convenient 

angle; F, Curette. 

ing sound and a general feeling of uneasiness inside the head.. As 
this continues and hearing is possibly interfered with, the indi¬ 
vidual seeks medical aid,, under the supposition that he has some 











12 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


serious ear trouble. From the symptoms alone the diagnosis can 
usually he made. 

An examination through an ear speculum reveals the ball of 
wax at a greater or less depth from the surface. Through as 
large a speculum as the ear will conveniently receive, slender for¬ 
ceps bent at a suitable angle may be passed into the ear until 
they touch the wax (Fig. 5). The ball may be seized and a 
number of fragments drawn outward through the speculum. The 
success of this method depends as much upon the consistency of 
the wax as upon the dexterity of the surgeon. If the wax is firm 
it can all be removed in a few minutes. If it is soft very little 
of it can be extracted in this manner, and removal by syringing 
has to be resorted to. A fountain syringe or irrigator is filled with 
a warm dilute solution of bicarbonate of soda (a teaspoonful to the 
pint) and placed high enough to give slight force to the escaping 
stream, which is then directed, either with or without the specu¬ 
lum, full against the plug of wax, the ear being lifted upward and 
backward to dilate and straighten the canal. The wax is made less 
viscid by the fluid, and is separated from the walls of the meatus 
to a certain extent, and in most cases half an hour’s syringing, 
interrupted by occasional extraction of fragments with the forceps, 
or with the curette, will suffice to empty the meatus. If not, the 
procedure can be resumed the following day. When the wax or 
other foreign body has been removed, the ear should be carefully 
examined for the presence of inflammation. If the surface is 
merely excoriated, an occasional antiseptic irrigation or dusting 
with powdered boracic acid is sufficient treatment. 

Foreign Bodies in the Month and Throat.—Small foreign bodies 
may become lodged in some crevice of the mouth or throat, or if 
sharp, they may penetrate the mucous membrane, and thus resist 
the patient’s efforts to eject or swallow them. A fish bone, a 
splinter, or a fragment of straw is the object that usually be¬ 
comes embedded. 

The sensations of the patient are in most cases a reliable guide 
to the location of the foreign body. It is possible for a rough 
object to scratch the throat during the act of swallowing, and leave 
behind it the sensation of a foreign body. It is the exception, 
however, for the patient to be mistaken in this way, so that the 
physician ought in every case to make an examination with a 



WOUNDS 


13 


strong reflected or direct light and a throat mirror. The latter is 
of the greatest service in hunting for small, colorless objects, since 
it enables the examiner to inspect the tonsil and the pillars of the 
fauces from different angles. These are the situations in which 
most small foreign bodies become lodged. When found, the foreign 
body can be extracted with the forceps, or worked loose with a probe 
or bent wire. If the search is fruitless, it should be resumed on 
the following day, provided the symptoms in the meantime have 
not subsided. 

Foreign bodies in the larynx and esophagus are described on 

page 117. 

Wounds. —The different varieties of wounds—incised, lacer¬ 
ated, et cetera—are found with frequency upon all portions of the 
head. The blood supply of the scalp and of the skin of. the face 
is so free that no matter how jagged a wound may be, the vitality 

of its points is usually preserved. 

Owing* to the smooth, hard surface of the skull, a blow upon 
the scalp with a blunt instrument, such as a policeman’s club, will 
produce a fairly clean cut wound, almost like that made with a 
knife. A careful inspection of its edges, however, will show a con¬ 
tused area more or less circular, and about an inch in diameter, 
which represents the area of contact of the instrument with which 

the blow was given. 

Treatment. —The first object of treatment is to control hem¬ 
orrhage, either by pressure or ligation of the bleeding vessels; 
the second is to determine the extent of the wound, the third 
to remove any foreign bodies which may be present, and the fouith 
to approximate, by suture or otherwise, the tissues which have been 

divided, whether skin or deeper structures. 

It should be an invariable rule never to pass a probe into a 
wound, especially a wound of the scalp, until the skin has. been 
cleaned as for operation; otherwise the probe may spread infec¬ 
tion to the deeper portions of the wound, which in the particular 
case mentioned may be the surface of the brain. 

The skin should be thoroughly washed with soap and. water, 
then with some solvent of grease, such as ether, or turpentine fol¬ 
lowed by alcohol, and dried by gauze sponges or cotton swabs 
wrung out of an antiseptic solution (p. 34). The. wound should 
be cleansed with saline solution, or stronger solutions, according 



I 


14 INJURIES OF THE HEAD 

to circumstances. Its edges should be retracted, and the possi¬ 
bility of deep injury determined. Small foreign bodies should be 
removed. 

If a foreign body such as a splinter passes under the skin, the 
sinus made by it should be split up and thoroughly cleansed, for 
if allowed to remain undisturbed it is almost certain to cause sup¬ 
puration and delay recovery. A bullet of small caliber may pene¬ 
trate the scalp at one point, pass along outside of the skull, and 
emerge at another, or remain between the periosteum and the skin. 
In such a case the bullet should be removed by an incision over it, 
the sinus irrigated with peroxid of hydrogen solution, 1:8 or 
weaker, and 1: 2,000 bichlorid solution, and pressure applied 
throughout its length except at its ends, which should be kept open 
by small strips of gutta-percha tissue or gauze. In this manner 
union can ordinarily be secured without dividing the intervening 
scalp. 

Most small wounds of the face and scalp should be sutured 
without drainage, or at most, a flat gutta-percha or horsehair 
drain should be employed (Fig. 306). Carefully applied pressure 
obtained by bandaging a dry compress of gauze to the head will 
prevent reaccumulation of blood in the wound. 

While it is generally true that all the ragged points of a wound 
of the face or scalp will live, it is better for the sake of a clean 
scar to trim the edges of the wound so that they may be smoothly 
approximated. Especial attention should be given to the direction 
of hairs whose roots are often twisted and displaced by rough 
injuries. Horsehair, fine black silk, or Ho. 150 cotton thread are 
excellent materials for the suture. « 

Some surgeons have advocated a subcuticular suture. This is 
introduced with a curved needle which passes into and out of the 
skin, first on one side of the wound and then on the other, without 
reaching the surface. The suture is more difficult of application 
than other sutures, and it sometimes fails to approximate accu¬ 
rately the overlying epidermis. If the thread used for an inter¬ 
rupted suture is a very fine silk, Ho. A, or 150 cotton, and the 
sutures are taken out in from two to four days, no permanent scars 
due to the punctures will remain. 

Wounds of the Eye.—If a laceration extends through both the 
skin and conjunctiva of the eyelid, some of the sutures should pass 



WOUNDS 


15 


through both structures, so as to approximate the edges of the 
conjunctiva. Other sutures should he placed in the skin only. 
All of them should he removable from the outside. In treating 
wounds of the eyeball, repair with the least disturbance of the nor¬ 
mal relations should be the aim of the operator. Protruding por¬ 
tions of the iris should be snipped off. Wounds of the sclerotic 
coat, if sufficiently large, should be sutured with the finest catgut. 
The eye should be washed with Thiersch’s solution (salicylic acid 
2, boric acid 12, boiled water 1,000 parts) one-half strength, or a 
half-saturated solution of boracic acid, or a normal salt solution. 
A light pad of gauze moistened with one of these solutions should 
be applied. Tbe bandage (Fig. 326) should be light so that evap¬ 
oration may keep the eye cool. Ho rubber protective is permissible. 
The moisture should be kept up by adding from time to time more 
of the solution or cold boiled water. If the injury is serious the 
patient should remain in bed until repair is' well established. The 
services of an ophthalmic surgeon should be obtained in these cases 
whenever possible. 

Wounds of the Mouth.—Wounds within the mouth are con¬ 
stantly filled with bacteria, some of them pathogenic, neverthe¬ 
less, they usually heal with little delay, owing to constant mois¬ 
ture and the extremely free blood supply. It is rare that the 
surgeon is called upon to treat a bitten tongue or cheek. If, how¬ 
ever, so large a flap has been separated from tbe main tissue that 
untreated it would cause a permanent roughness m the mouth, one 
or more sutures of fine black silk should be inserted with a curved 
needle. Plain catgut soon swells and softens and loses its grip. 
Catgut prepared so as to resist moisture (e. g., chromicized) is stiff 
and unpleasant; fine silk,. dyed black so as to be readily seen, is 

therefore the best suture material for the mouth. 

If the lip or cheek is cut through, cutaneous sutures passed 
through all the tissues except the mucous membrane will suf¬ 
ficiently hold the parts in place, or the mucous membrane may first 
be sutured with catgut or silk, the knots being tied inside the 
mouth. If silk is used the sutures should be so placed that their 
extraction will be easy. The mouth should be kept clean by rins¬ 
ing with a mild antiseptic solution, and, if necessary, remnants of 
food should be wiped with wet cotton swabs from the vicinity of 

the wound. 


16 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


Steno’s duct, or the facial nerve, may be divided in wounds 
of the cheek (Fig. G). Immediate suture should be performed, 
or even late suture if the accident is overlooked at first. If the 

two divided portions of 
Steno’s duct have become 
separated by scar tissue, 
the anterior portion of 
tlie duct can usually be 
probed, and the probe 
thrust into the posterior, 
then dilated portion. 
The channel may be re¬ 
stored by tying the probe 
in place for a day or 
so, or a ligature may be 
passed through the duct 
beyond the scar and into 
the mouth. As soon as 
the normal channel is re¬ 
established, such an arti¬ 
ficial fistula will close as 
soon as the thread is re¬ 
moved. A small exter¬ 
nal fistula due to an in¬ 
cision into the substance 
of the gland, will usu¬ 
ally close of itself in a 
few days. 

The paralysis of the mouth, and possibly also of the eyelids due 
to division of the facial nerve, can hardly be overlooked. The 
nerve should be sutured at once; see Chapter XIII for the technic. 

Wounds of the Periosteum —In incised and punctured wounds 
of the scalp, the periosteum is often injured. This serious com¬ 
plication can be recognized by retraction of the edges of the wound 
and inspection and probing of its deeper portion. If merely the 
overlying aponeurosis is divided, one may be misled into supposing 
that it is the periosteum. If the latter is also divided the probe 
will clearly detect the underlying bone. Such a wound should be 
thoroughly examined, cleansed, and drained. It is better to delay 



Fig. 6.—Division of Steno’s Duct by a Razor. 
The skin was sutured and the division of the 
duct was not noticed until the obstructing 
scar caused distention behind it. This patient 
was promptly cured by the method described 
above. 





FRACTURES 


17 


union for a few days by tlie presence of a gauze drain than to 
suture the periosteum and run the risk of abscess formation be¬ 
neath it. The mere exposure of the skull for a few days will not 
result in necrosis if suppuration does not coexist; whereas an in¬ 
fected punctured wound, for example over the eye, may be fol¬ 
lowed by suppuration under the periosteum which, if neglected, 
may pass through the skull and set up a fatal suppurative menin¬ 
gitis. Therefore the fresh wound should be only partially sutured, 
while a strip of gauze should reach to the periosteum in the center 
of the wound. This drain may be withdrawn in forty-eight hours, 
and if the wound is still clean it mav be allowed to close; if it is 
suppurating it should be washed out with mild antiseptics and 
drained again, and a wet dressing applied. 

Fractures.—Fracture of the Skull.— In many instances it is 
impossible to diagnose a simple fracture of the skull except by ac¬ 
companying signs. These are local pain and tenderness, hemor¬ 
rhage—the blood appearing in the orbit or coming from the ear— 
headache, shock, partial paralysis, pupils irregularly contracted or 
dilated, and partial or complete unconsciousness. Shock, even to 
complete unconsciousness, may be present from concussion of the 
brain (really contusion of the brain) without fracture of the skull; 
and fracture of the skull, especially if it is caused by a fairly sharp 
instrument and if it involves bone which overlies the less impor¬ 
tant portions of the brain, may be unaccompanied by shock. This 
is especially true of the occipital region. Hemorrhage in the orbit, 
appearing usually under the conjunctiva, or from the nose (if frac¬ 
ture of the nose is absent), or from the ear, or appearing under the 
skin in these localities, is considered to be pathognomonic ot frac¬ 
ture of the base of the skull. Under such circumstances operative 
treatment is out of the question. Absolute quiet in a cool, daik 
room, with external heat to the extremities, and cardiac stimulants, 
if necessary, are the best means to be employed. If external 
wounds are present the most rigid asepsis should be observed in 
their treatment. If the lesion in the skull is extensive or a poi 
tion of the bone is depressed, it is better not to attempt repair at 
the time of the accident, but simply to protect the wound by a moist 
antiseptic, or dry sterile dressing, until arrangements lor a for¬ 
midable operation can be completed. 

Fluctuating hematoma of the scalp, surrounded by a ring of 




18 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


resistant edema, may give the impression that the bone in its center 
is depressed. This error is to he avoided by noting the natural 
curve of the skull outside of the edematous area. 

Fracture into a Frontal Sinus.—A fracture of the frontal bone 
just about the orbit may involve only the outer wall of the frontal 
sinus. This is not usually a serious lesion, but the bone should be 

replaced in its normal 
position so that per¬ 
manent disfigurement 
may be avoided. 

To accomplish this 
it may be necessary to 
make an incision be¬ 
neath the eyebrow. 

Fracture of the Ma¬ 
lar Bone.—This injury 
is due to direct vio¬ 
lence, and the bone is 
almost invariably dis¬ 
placed backward so 
that one cheek is less 
prominent than the 
other (Fig. 7 ). 

patient, chisel a hole 
into the antrum just 
above the first bicuspid 
tooth and introduce a curved steel sound. With this instrument 
as a lever, firm, steady pressure may be exerted upon the inner 
surface of the malar until it is brought into its normal position. 
A mouth wash is the only after treatment required. 

Fracture of the Nasal Bones.—The nose is frequently injured 
by blows and falls, so that the nasal bones may be fractured, or the 
cartilages torn loose from them. An injury of this sort is usually 
followed by more or less hemorrhage from the nares. There is 
also subcutaneous hemorrhage and edema, so that it is difficult to 
determine from external examination alone whether the rigid struc¬ 
tures have been altered. Gentle manipulation of the bridge of the 


To replace it in po¬ 
sition, anesthetize the 









FRACTURES 


19 


nose will usually elicit crepitus if there is a fracture. This should 
he combined with inspection of the nares through a bivalve specu¬ 
lum. Deformity may of course have existed previous to the injury, 
and the patient should be questioned upon this point. 

The hemorrhage stops in a few minutes, and the pain is slight; 
but the patient may be distressed by his appearance, or by the fact 
that the swelling and hemorrhage prevent him from breathing 
through his nose; but both nares are not usually obstructed. 

Treatment. —The chief object of treatment is the reduction 
of deformity, and the maintenance of correct relations for a few 
days. Whenever possible, existing deformity should be so cor¬ 
rected or overcorrected that there is no further tendency for the 
bones to slip out of place. A blunt steel sound, or some similar 
instrument passed into the nostril, is of assistance in correcting 
displacement. 

If deformity tends to recur, it may be necessary to insert a hol¬ 
low, perforated rubber cone into one nostril, or to apply an external 
splint. This can be made of dental composition, softened in hot 
water, and molded to the nose, or a pad of gutta-percha tissue 
may be similarly employed. As the swelling diminishes, the splint 
must be remolded. The surgeon can then better judge whether 
all deformity has been corrected, and if not this should be accom¬ 
plished before union becomes solid. If the patient is seen several 
times with this object in view, it will rarely be necessary to make 
use of a complicated nasal splint, or to scar the face’by passing a 
hat pin directly through the nose. 

Fracture of the Superior Maxilla. —This is one of the less com¬ 
mon fractures. Deformity is easily overcome, and after reduc¬ 
tion the fragments will usually remain in a correct position, since 
there are no strong muscles tending to displace them. As an addi¬ 
tional safeguard, wires and threads may be used to bind together 
teeth attached to the fragment, and those of the remaining part of 
the superior maxilla, as described below in connection with frac¬ 
ture of the inferior maxilla. 

Fracture of the Inferior Maxilla or Mandible. —This injury is 
very common, and often seriously atfects the patient s health. 
Moreover, the difficulty of keeping the fragments in correct posi¬ 
tion often taxes the ingenuity of the surgeon to the utmost. The 

fracture is due to direct violence, and almost always to blows re- 
4 




20 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


ceived in a fight. The line of fracture usually passes through the 
body of the jaw, back of the canine or the bicuspid tooth. It may, 
however, occur at other places, and often there is a second fracture, 
either on the other side, or possibly on the same side, in which case 
it may be above the angle of the jaw. If the fracture is situated 
in that portion of the jaw occupied by the teeth, it is almost always 
compound into the mouth. 

Diagnosis is made from inspection and manipulation, as well as 
from the subjective symptoms of pain and disability. There is 
local swelling and tenderness. Inspection of the gums will usually 
show a break in the continuity of the mucous membrane at the 
roots of the teeth. The patient cannot open his mouth fully, nor 
can he bite on a hard substance, for example a cork. Attempts to 
open and close the mouth may produce motion at the site of frac¬ 
ture, shown by changes in the relation of the teeth on either side 
of the break. Such displacements can be readily produced by the 
examiner, if, grasping the jaw between his thumb placed under 
the patient’s chin and two fingers placed on the incisor teeth, he 
rocks it from side to side. 

The disability due to this fracture is great. The patient is 
absolutely unable to chew solid food, even if it were desirable to let 
him do so, or to open the jaw except to a slight extent. Pain pre¬ 
vents him from sleeping, and abnormal fermentations within the 
mouth increase the swelling and inflammation, and add to his dis¬ 
gust and discomfort. 

Treatment.— The first step in treatment is the perfect reduc¬ 
tion of the fragments, under a general anesthetic if necessary. In 
some cases this is a very simple procedure, and the ends of the 
bone when reduced show no tendency to become displaced. In 
other cases reduction is easy, but the moment that the surgeon lets 
go of the jaw displacement recurs. In a third class of cases per¬ 
fect reduction is impossible, or can only be accomplished by the 
exercise of considerable force. This means that a tooth has become 
loosened and wedged between the fragments, or that there is a dis¬ 
placed small fragment of bone which has intervened, in a similar 
manner to prevent the reduction. Such offending tooth, or frag¬ 
ment, should of course be removed. 

T he simplest method of keeping the fractured ends of the bone 
in apposition is to bandage the jaws firmly together, thus making 



FRACTURES 


21 


the upper jaw act as a splint for the lower one. A four-tailed 
bandage with a slit or narrow ellipse cut in its center through 
which the point of the chin protrudes sufficiently to keep the band¬ 
age from slipping, is tied across the occiput and over the forehead, 
one end being left long in each situation (Fig. 

8). These two ends are then tied together over 
the top of the head. The bandage after this 
application is shown in Figure 328, Chapter 
XXI. In this manner any desired amount of 
pressure can be produced upon the j aw, the pull 
being both backward and upward. This meth¬ 
od of treatment makes it difficult for a patient 
to keep his mouth in proper condition, and in¬ 
terferes with feeding, as he has to take fluid 
nourishment through a tube. Pressure of the 
bandage over the seat of fracture often adds to 
the patient’s discomfort; hut it is by far the 
commonest method employed on account of its 
ready application. There are cases in which it 
answers the purpose admirably, and the patient 
is even able to open his teeth sufficiently to 
brush them without disturbing the fractured 
ends. In other cases the bandage is a miser¬ 
able failure. Xon-success is usually due to 
the fact that reduction has been imperfectly 
accomplished, or to the fact that the patient 
has not two full sets of teeth. If a person has 
all of his natural teeth, pressure of one set 
against the other, and the repeated slight blows Fig 8 — Four-Tailed 
niven by the act of chewing will, during the Bandage for 

^ . Fracture of the 

later weeks of convalescence, correct any sliglit inferior Maxilla. 

irregularity of the lower jaw which still exists, 

provided that reduction does not require much force, and that there 

are at least two teeth back of the line of fracture. 

If this simple treatment does not succeed, or if for other rea¬ 
sons a more exact method of treatment is indicated, the teeth may 
be wired together. For this purpose two flat wires should be 
passed along the lower teeth, one inside of them and one outside 
of them, and they should be lashed to the teeth and to each other 





22 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


by threads; but no threads should be placed around the two teeth 
nearest the fracture, for they are usually loosened and incapable 
of enduring the strain. In many cases absence of teeth, or the 
situation of the fracture far back, makes this plan of treatment 
impossible. 

Fracture of the lower jaw may be treated by means of an in¬ 
terdental splint. Success in the use of this form of apparatus 
depends not a little upon the manual dexterity of the surgeon. The 
first step is to secure a good impression of the teeth and gums of 
the whole of the lower jaw. This impression may readily be taken 
by means of modeling composition such as dentists use, and it is 
not at all necessary that the fracture be reduced when the impres¬ 
sion is taken. It is just as easy to set the fracture in the im¬ 
pression as it is in the jaw, but the fracture must be reduced, of 
course, before the splint is applied. The impression should show 
the line of the gums both inside and outside the teeth, and should 
extend well back to the angle of the jaw on the fractured side. 
From such an impression, if well made, an excellent splint may 
be ordered from any dental manufacturing house at a cost of ten 
dollars or more. Counter-pressure is obtained by the four-tailed 
bandage already described, or the splint may be pressed against 
the lower jaw by means of a pad or a bit of board which is attached 
to the splint by a broad spring curling over the chin. Another plan 
is. to fix wires in the interdental splint. These come out at 
the angles of the mouth and turn backward along the cheeks, and 
are bound together, the bandage passing beneath the jaw. Pres¬ 
sure will be more exact if a board nearly as long as the distance 
between the wires is placed under the jaw. If a splint of this 
character fits accurately, it enables the patient to open his mouth 
and often to chew soft food, if the interdental splint is made to 
fit both upper and lower teeth. In many cases, this splint will 
keep the broken bone in place without the use of a bandage. 

The form of apparatus selected must be worn for a month 
or more, depending upon the amount of tendency to displacement 
and the rapidity with which the ends of the bone unite. Even in 
favorable cases it will be several weeks before the patient regains 
the full power of the jaw and the ability to open wide the mouth. 
If the line of union is a correct one, the surgeon need not hesitate 
to promise complete restoration of function. 


FRACTURES 


23 


Complications of Fracture of the Lower Jaw.—Fracture of the 
lower jaw is usually compound into the mouth. It is therefore 
not surprising that infection sometimes develops. In a certain 
number of cases this is of mild character; the pus which forms is 
discharged into the month, the wound heals by granulation, and 
the union of the fractured bone, although delayed, is not other¬ 
wise interfered with. In a good many cases, however, an abscess 
forms which drains imperfectly and gives rise to pain, swelling 
and edema of the neck and possibly fluctuation below the margin 
of the jaw. This is an unfortunate complication, since it may 
lead to a sequestrum and greatly delay recovery, and possibly 
make it necessary to perform one or more operations .to provide 
drainage or remove dead bone. It is therefore important to keep 
the month of every patient as clean as possible by the use of 
astringent and antiseptic mouth washes. If an abscess forms, it 
should be promptly drained within the mouth if good drainage 
can be thus secured, and if not, through an external incision. 
Such an incision should be parallel to the margin of the jaw, and 
just below it. If the fracture is near the center of the horizontal 
ramus, the possibility of division of the facial artery or vein 
should be borne in mind. A drain should be placed in the external 
wound, but should be of such a character as to favor the escape 
of pus, and not to prevent it. Frequent irrigation with a solution 
of peroxide of hydrogen (1:8) assists in keeping the wound free 
from bacteria. Meanwhile treatment of the fracture itself should 

be continued as described above. 

A sinus which has formed spontaneously, or which follows an 
external incision for drainage usually lasts some weeks. Mo at¬ 
tempt should be made to close the opening in the skin until the 
deeper portion of the sinus has become filled by granulation. 
When this takes place, the opening in the skin will quickly close. 

Persistence of the sinus means that some foreign material is 
present: either the loosened root of a tooth or a sequestrum of the 
bone itself. The opening should be enlarged, such foreign mate¬ 
rial removed, and another period of drainage instituted. Care 
should be taken not to break up newly formed bone, which is often 
thrown out around the sequestrum in great abundance in cases of 

compound fracture of the lower jaw. 

Mon-union of the mandible is almost unknown; therefore a 


24 


INJURIES OF THE HEAD 


persistent following out of .the principles here outlined will lead 
to complete restoration. If the resulting scar is unnecessarily dis¬ 
figuring by reason of its close attachment to the hone, it should 
he removed; hut not until some months have elapsed (p. 47). 

Dislocation of the Jaw. —This is a rare accident which 
is brought on by extreme gaping or laughter. The condyloid 
process on one or both sides slips forward out of its socket. It is 
impossible to close the mouth, and the pain due to stretching of 
the ligaments is excessive. The patient should be anesthetized 
and the jaw grasped firmly with two hands, the thumbs of which, 
well wrapped about with bandage, are placed upon the molar teeth. 
Pressure downward and then backward will restore the bone to 
its correct position. In some persons dislocation of the jaw takes 
place easily, owing to abnormal laxity of the ligaments. Under 
these circumstances reduction is readily accomplished without an 
anesthetic. Uo after treatment is necessary. 

There are certain long standing cases of unreduced dislocation 
of the jaw which cannot be reduced in the manner described, and 
for which resection of the articular portion of the bone lias been 
advised, or the bone may sometimes be dragged into place by a 
specially contrived hook which is inserted through a small wound 
in the cheek and is passed around the neck of the jaw. 

Subluxation. —A few young men and girls—especially the lat¬ 
ter—complain of a partial dislocation of one or both maxillary 
articulations every time the mouth is opened. This trouble occurs 
at the period of development of the wisdom teetlg and in most 
cases it is due to the lack of space for the orderly growth of the 
tooth. If the tooth grows crooked, or if swelling accompanies its 
eruption, the normal action of the muscles which open and close 
the jaw is interfered with. Suppuration about the wisdom tooth, or 
even a blow on the jaw, may cause similar symptoms. 

The pain is usually slight. The patient is annoyed by its 
persistence, or by an uncomfortable slipping of the jaw, or by 
its slipping with a click loud enough to be heard by others when 
the patient is eating. In the developmental cases, spontaneous 
cure often results in some months. If the wisdom tooth is much 
out of line, or is decayed, it should be removed. Pain is often 
relieved by counterirritants, but great care should be exercised 
not to permanently stain the skin by their use. 





CHAPTER II 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 

EFFECTS OF HEAT AND COLD 

Burns. —The burns of the head which the surgeon is called 
upon to treat are not usually very deep. The scalp is protected by 
hair, and if flames or steam rise into the face sufficiently to burn 
deeply, they will usually be inhaled and produce fatal internal 
injury. Most of the deeper burns of the face are, therefore, the 
result of a gas explosion or the electric flash caused by short cir¬ 
cuiting. The importance of avoiding a scar is, of course, ^ ciy 
great, so that slight burns should be carefully attended to. 

Burns have been variously classified according to the depth to 
which the tissue is destroyed. Eor practical purposes, they may 
all be placed in three classes. 

Burns of the First Degree. —The symptoms are swelling, 
redness, and tenderness of the skin. I here is no a isible destruc 
tion even of the epidermis, although this usually peels off in strips 
a few days later. A familiar example is a mild sunburn. There 
is increased redness of the burned area for a week or more, but no 
permanent scar. 

Treatment of Burns of the First Degree. —The chief 
indication for treatment is the relief from pain. This is best accom¬ 
plished by smearing the surface with one of the lighter ointments 
which contains a considerable amount of w^ater, such as rose water 
ointment, or one of the ointments sold under the names of Let¬ 
tuce Cream, Cucumber Cream, etc. Cow’s cream is excellent for 
the purpose. Recovery promptly follows the application of any 
non-irritating substance. 

Burns of the Second Degree. —Much of the epidermis 

within the burned area is destroyed. There are blisters either full 

of serum or collapsed, or the injured epidermis may have been 

more or less removed. Hairs within the burned area are also 

25 


26 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


burned away. There is redness, swelling, and tenderness, and a 
more or less free oozing of serum, and possibly of some blood. 
Repair in this class of burns takes longer than in burns of the first 
degree, but no slough of the true skin occurs. If the whole thick¬ 
ness of the epidermal layer is here and there destroyed, these areas 
are. very small and are rapidly covered by spreading of the deeper 
layer of epithelial cells. There is, therefore, no permanent scar. 
Redness will persist longer than in burns of the first degree, pos¬ 
sibly for a month or more. 

Treatment of Burns of the Second Degree. —The chief 
indication for treatment is the relief of pain. The permanent 
result is certain to be good. There are four plans of treatment: 
One is to apply a dressing soaked with oil or spread with ointment 
in order to protect the injured surface from the air and from 
changes in temperature. A second plan is to cover the burn with 
strips of rubber tissue or with gauze wet with normal saline solu¬ 
tion. The third plan is to treat the burned area with an antiseptic 
dressing, which may be allowed to dry or which may be kept moist. 
The fourth plan is to leave the burned area exposed to the air in 
order that it may dry up. Various dusting powders are employed 
to further this last plan. 

The author favors the first or the secolid of these four plans, 
believing that these dressings are more comfortable to the patient, 
and that they favor the vitality of those portions of the skin which 
have been injured but not destroyed by the burn; and because 
such dressings, provided plenty of ointment is used, or plenty of 
water if a wet dressing is employed, can be removed with less pain 
and damage than other dressings which are allowed to dry out. 
Powders are objectionable, since they form, with the exuded se¬ 
rum, hard crusts which are veritable culture tubes for bacteria. 
It is impossible to make or keep aseptic an area of skin which 
has been burned below the superficial portion of the epidermis. 
Protection against infection depends, therefore, on the vitality of 
the remaining skin rather than on the antiseptic qualities of the 
dressing. Hence, the latter should be soothing to the skin rather 
than deadly to the bacteria. 

A good example of an oily dressing is carron oil, a mixture of 
equal parts of linseed oil and lime water. If this is used the 
gauze should be thoroughly saturated with it, as otherwise the oil 



BURNS 


27 


will soak into the outer dry dressings, and the inner layers will 
become very firmly attached to the skin. For this reason an oint¬ 
ment is preferable in most cases. A good one is composed of one 
dram of boric acid to the ounce of vaseline. The ointment should 
he sterilized by setting the j ar which contains it in a pan of boiling 
water. It can, of course, be sterilized in a steam sterilizer. The 
ointment should be used freely. A good plan is to spread it over 
the burned area with a spatula, much as one spreads butter with a 
knife. Dry gauze can then be applied in pieces small enough to 
fit the part, and the dressing fixed by a loose gauze bandage. 

The principle of the normal saline solution when used as a 
dressing for a burn is the same as when used as a dressing for 
a skin graft. It is to reproduce as far as possible the normal 
surroundings of growing epithelium. If this plan is adopted, the 
burned area should be immersed in a saline solution, or lightly 
sponged with swabs saturated with the same. It is then covered 
with several thicknesses of gauze saturated with saline, and evapo¬ 
ration is prevented by covering the whole with a sheet of gutta¬ 
percha tissue, or strips of gutta-percha tissue may be applied 
directly to the burned surface, and these in turn be covered by the 
wet gauze. When the dressing is applied in this manner, a sheet 
of impervious material may be applied externally, or this may be 
omitted and the gauze kept wet by more frequent saturation with 
saline or boiled water. 

Picric acid is recommended by those who favor antiseptics in 
the treatment of burns of the second degree. Gauze is saturated 
with a one per cent solution, either before or after it is applied to 
the burned surface. This dressing is supposed to control the pain, 
but I have seen patients suffer severely after its employment. It 
has a tendency to dry up the exudate, so that ip many cases burns 
treated in this way are greatly improved in appearance. The in¬ 
tense yellow color of the picric acid stains the clothing. 

A mild antiseptic solution suitable for use in burns of the 
second as well as of the third degree, is a four per cent solution 
of aluminum acetate. The gauze should be saturated with it, and 
then kept wet by the addition of sterile water from time to time. 

If it is decided to treat the burn by the dry method, it may be 
left exposed to the air or cleansed and dusted with a powder, such 
as bismuth subnitrate, or bismuth subgallate, or nosophen. 


28 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


Burns of the Third Degree. —Portions of the corium, and 
possibly still deeper structures have been destroyed by the beat. It 
is easy to be misled in this matter by the early appearance of the 
skin. In a burn of the first or second degree the affected skin is 
red from the congestion of the vessels in it. If the vitality of the 
corium is destroyed, the blood cannot circulate through its vessels, 
and the skin will therefore appear white. The difference between 
this skin and normal skin is easily recognized if one looks for 
changes in color due to pressure made upon it. Such changes 
will, of course, be wanting in the dead skin. Furthermore, such 
a white, dead area will invariably be surrounded by a hyperemic 
zone in which the burn is only of the second degree. I have known 
several instances in which intelligent physicians overlooked a burn 
of the third degree, being misled by the lack of redness of the 
skin. This dead skin will, of course, slough, and in time will 
become entirely loose. During this process, which sometimes takes 
two weeks or more, there is danger that the slough will interfere 
with the exit of underlying pus. 

Treatment of Burns of the Third Degree. —We have, 
then, in burns of the third degree, three indications for local treat¬ 
ment—the relief of pain, protection of the injured hut living tis¬ 
sues, and drainage of any pus pockets which may form. A moist 
antiseptic dressing best fulfils the requirements. In most cases 
morphine should he given either hypodermically or by mouth dur¬ 
ing the first twenty-four hours. Few persons can sleep without an 
opiate the first night after a burn, even if they can endure the 
pain while awake. 

The moist dressing should he applied warm and kept warm. 
The gauze may he saturated with aluminum acetate, as mentioned 
above, or boric acid, or any other feeble antiseptic. The dressing 
should he kept constantly moist, and in some instances a continu¬ 
ous hath is desirable. 

Frequent dressings are to he avoided, hut if the dressings be¬ 
come saturated with pus and serum, the comfort of the patient is 
usually promoted by changing them. Sloughs should he cut away 
as soon as they loosen, hut not before. If a large area is burned, 
the central portions of the skin may loosen before the edges. If 
so, incisions should he made through the slough or portions of it 
excised to permit free escape of pus and secretions. 



BURNS 


29 


The repair after a burn of the first or second degree is accom¬ 
plished by the normal growth of the epidermis. In every burn of 
the third degree the removal of the sloughs is accomplished by the 
growth of granulations beneath them. These granulating areas 
must be covered by the lateral growth of the epithelial cells, either 
from the edge of uninjured skin, or from islands of epithelium 
which have been left, or from the epithelium which lines the fat 
and sweat glands. This new epithelium at first has no color of 
its own, and simply -looks like a dark red glaze over parts of the 
granulating surface. Later, as the epithelial cells multiply, a 
whitish appearance results. It will be evident, therefore, in two 
or three weeks whether the burned area will become covered with 
epithelium within a reasonable time. An epithelial edge will grow 
about an eighth of an inch a week. A granulating area, therefore, 
which is an inch in its smallest diameter, will require a month for 
its complete repair. Areas larger than this, and which are with¬ 
out epithelial islands should be skin-grafted (see Chapter XX). 

There is one other thing to be borne in mind during the repair, 
and that is the possibility of cicatricial contraction. This can be 
avoided to a certain extent by the judicious use of plaster ban¬ 
dages and splints to keep the burned area fully extended during 
the healing process; but a far better means of prevention is the 
early covering of the granulating surface with pedicled flaps, or 
when this is not practical, with Thiersch, or better, with \\ olte 
grafts. In this way the amount of scar tissue is kept at a mini¬ 
mum and the power of contraction will be slight. 

Sunburn.—This injury, though not serious, should be pre¬ 
vented many times when it is not. Before exposure to the rays 
of the sun the skin should he rubbed with cold cream or some sim¬ 
ple ointment, such as boracic acid ointment, and when the skin 
shows the first pink color, it should be covered with clothing. If 
one waits until the sensation of burning is present, the mischief 
will have been accomplished. The treatment of sunburn is that 
of a burn of the first degree. Washing with soap is to be avoided. 

Sunburn of the lip is very annoying because it takes from one 
to two weeks for recovery. This is because the thinner epithelium 
in the burned area is totally destroyed, and the little ulcei which 
results must heal entirely by growth of epithelium from its edges, 
at the rate of one-eighth of an inch per week. 



30 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


X-Ray Burn.—Exposure to the X-ray in some cases for a few 
minutes only, produces a redness of the skin which somewhat re¬ 
sembles sunburn. It does not, however, appear until some hours 
or days after the exposure. If the exposure is frequently repeated, 
an ulcer may form. 

The milder lesions quickly disappear, and require no other 
treatment than soothing applications. The ulcers are often very 
painful. Ointments containing cocain, morphine, menthol, or 
orthoform should be tried. Stelwagon recommends currettage and 
skin-grafting in obstinate cases. 

Frostbite. —The ears, cheeks, and nose are the parts of the 
head most often frozen. If the part is still frozen when the 
patient is first seen, it should be rubbed briskly in the cold 
until the circulation is reestablished, in order to avoid a violent 
reaction. 

Frostbite of the head requiring surgical treatment is almost 
always confined to the ears. The symptoms of cyanosis, swelling, 
pain, and tenderness are here well marked. Occasionally blisters 
form; but gangrene is uncommon, at least in this latitude. 

Various applications have been recommended for frostbite. 
The good effect of treatment seems to be due merely to the main¬ 
tenance of an even temperature which facilitates the flow of blood 
to the part. Moreover, the dressing protects the ear from sudden 
changes in temperature. Any astringent, or simple ointment, such 
as one containing tannic acid or ichthyol, spread in a thick layer 
upon gauze applied to the ear and covered with a layer of cotton, 
forms a satisfactory dressing. 

If a portion of the ear is gangrenous, it should not be removed 
until a line of demarcation is well established. It may then be 
seen that gangrene does not extend deeper than the skin, or possibly 
the epidermis. (Compare gangrene of the extremities from 
frostbite, pages 394 and 511.) 

Dermatitis. —Sunburn and frostbite are forms of dermatitis 
due to heat and cold. Dermatitis may also be due to traumatism, 
the treatment for which is essentially the same as that given for 
sunburn. In other cases, dermatitis follows the unwise use of 
drugs externally or internally, while a very common form of. der¬ 
matitis is due to contact with poison ivy. These have the general 
name of dermatitis venenata if due to an external application; if 


HERPES 


31 


due to an ingested drug or poison, the name dermatitis medica¬ 
mentosa is used. 

Iodoform, mercury, carbolic acid, cantharides, dyestuffs, etc., 
will poison certain skins. There may he simply a redness and 
burning, or there may he a profuse eruption of vesicles. In ivy 
poisoning these vesicles are of various sizes, and a number of small 
ones often merge. 

In most cases of dermatitis, as soon as the cause is removed 
there is a prompt recovery. Treatment consists, therefore, of 
soothing applications, such as a two per cent solution of boracic 
acid, or the application of a simple ointment. Larger vesicles 
should he punctured and their contents expressed. In some cases 
an opiate is required. If the eruption is due to the ingestion of a 
drug, the drug should, of course, be stopped and a diuretic and 
cathartic should be given. 

ACUTE INFLAMMATIONS 

There are four common skin lesions of an inflammatory nature 
frequently found upon the face, with the diagnosis and treatment 
of which every physician should he familiar. They are urticaria, 
herpes, impetigo, and acne. A brief description of these four dis¬ 
eases is given here because of their acute character, as well as to 
differentiate them from forms of inflammation in the skin gener¬ 
ally considered surgical. 

Urticaria. —Urticaria is a form of eruption greatly resem¬ 
bling the bites of insects. Indeed these bites are classed as lesions 
of urticaria by some writers. Other external irritants, and vari¬ 
ous articles of food, especially shellfish, pork products, and straw¬ 
berries, will produce urticaria in some persons. The lesions come 
up quickly and usually subside in a few hours. 

A saline cathartic should be given, or under certain circum¬ 
stances an emetic. The affected skin should be bathed with a 
lotion, usually containing one or two per cent of carbolic acid, to 
relieve the itching. Three ounces of alcohol, three ounces of cam¬ 
phor water, and one dram of carbolic acid, make a good lotion for 
the purpose. 

Herpes. —The lesion of simple herpes, or fever sore, is a 
group of half a dozen vesicles, each of which is about as large as 


32 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


a pin-head. These contain at first serum, but later the fluid may 
become purulent. By drying, a crust results which falls off with¬ 
out leaving a permanent scar. The lesions are usually found 
either upon the face or the genitals. They are often seen on the 
lips in the beginning of acute disease, especially acute inflamma¬ 
tions of the respiratory tract. 

Any one group of vesicles lasts only a few days, but new 
vesicles may form in the vicinity. A good plan is to paint the 
affected skin every two or three hours with spirits of niter or 
camphor, or with tincture or benzoin. Carbolic salve or baume 
analgesiqne may be applied in the hopes of preventing new lesions 
from forming. When a crust has formed, cold cream may be 
applied. 

Impetigo. —Impetigo contagiosa is an acute contagious dis¬ 
ease, the lesions of which are usually found upon the face. There 
is first noticed a number of vesicles which soon become pustules, and 
which may coalesce. Crusts form, dry up, and fall off, leaving no 
permanent scar because the lesion is, in most instances, confined 
to the more superficial portion of the skin. For the same reason, 
there is little induration about any pustule. Successive crops of 
vesicles appear, especially if the patient breaks the formed blisters 
or pustules by scratching. 

The essentials of treatment are cleanliness and antisepsis. 
Blisters should be punctured, crusts removed, and an antiseptic 
lotion or ointment applied. A good preparation is cold cream to 
which ammoniated mercury has been added in the proportion of 
fifteen grains to the ounce, or twenty grains of sulphur to the 
ounce. The sound skin in the neighborhood should be sponged 
with an antiseptic solution. A good one for the purpose is given 
under Urticaria. 

Acne. —Acne is defined as an inflammatory disease of the 
sebaceous glands of the face, chest, and shoulders. It is most dis¬ 
tressing to the patient when it appears upon the face. It is usu¬ 
ally chronic. A careful examination of the skin within the area 
affected will show that many ducts of the sebaceous glands are 
blocked up, and contain sebaceous material mixed with dust, hence 
the common name “ blackhead.” Other obstructed ducts are the 
centers of little red, inflamed papules. Pustules have formed 
around others, while there are numerous scars of similar lesions 


CELLULITIS 


33 


which have healed. Many of these lesions run their life history 
without sufficient suppuration to leave a permanent scar. 

There are three factors in the development of acne—blocking 
up of the sebaceous duct, presence of micro-organisms, and a low¬ 
ered power of resistance to these organisms on the part of the 
individual. Thus, digestive disturbances,, the use of irritating 
drugs, menstrual irregularity, and other general causes exert a con¬ 
siderable influence. Acne is especially common between the ages 
of fifteen and twenty-five. 

Treatment. —Both general and local treatment should be em¬ 
ployed. Errors in diet should he corrected, out-of-door exercise 
encouraged, and such other measures instituted as will tend to 
improve the patient’s general condition. Free action of the bowels 
should be secured. Tonics are helpful, hut no drugs should be 
given which are likely to upset the stomach. 

Local treatment is most important. The affected part should 
be washed every night with very hot Avater, and as strong a soap 
as the skin will tolerate. Tincture of green soap acts well in many 
cases. The soap should he thoroughly removed by hot water, the 
skin dried, and a stimulating antiseptic ointment rubbed into it. 
In the morning this ointment should be washed aAvay Avith soap 
and Avarm Avater, the skin dried, and a soothing ointment rubbed 
into it. Cold cream ansAvers the purpose very Avell. Only a small 
quantity should be used, and any excess Aviped away with a soft 
cloth. A good stimulating ointment is benzoated lard to which 
has been added precipitated sulphur in the strength of one or tAvo 
drams to the ounce. Instead of the ointment a stimulating lotion 
may be employed, such as one composed of four drams of pre¬ 
cipitated sulphur, tAVo drams of alcohol, thirty minims of glycerin, 
and four ounces of Avater. The strength of the application used 
must be varied to suit different skins, and it is often of advantage 
to change the formula employed from time to time. There are 
many of these given in every book on dermatology. 

Individual acne pustules should be stabbed wi11 1 a fine lancet 
or a three sided, straight glover’s needle, and their contents gently 

expressed. 

Acne hypertrophica is described with neAV growths on page 83. 

Cellulitis.— Cellulitis of the head, whether it affects the hairy 
or smooth skin, presents the usual characteristics: namely, edema, 


34 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


heat and redness, and, especially if pus is present, there will he 
pain on pressure. The scratch or slight wound through which the 
infection entered can usually be found. Often it is covered with 
a crust, beneath which will he found a drop or two of pus. Two 
questions are of importance. Is the cellulitis due to erysipelas ? 
Is there a hidden focus of pus ? The distinguishing marks of ery¬ 
sipelas are given below. The presence of pus may usually he 
known by a greater tension of the swollen skin, and the pain which 
pressure causes at this point. If there is an abundance of pus 
fluctuation is a valuable sign, hut it is unobtainable at an early 
stage. Note the enlargement of regional lymph glands. They 

may suppurate also in 
some cases. 

Treatment. —If the 
diagnosis is doubtful, or 
if pus has been found 
and evacuated, a moist 
antiseptic dressing 
should be applied and 
kept wet. Ho gutta¬ 
percha tissue, nor other 
impervious material 
should be applied in such 
a manner that evapora¬ 
tion is prevented. Any 
mild antiseptic solution 
may be used, such as 
aluminum acetate, four 
per cent; bichlorid of 
mercury, 1:2,000; creo- 
lin, 1: 200, or one of 
the proprietary articles, 
such as borolyptol, 1: 4. 
The edge of the cellulitis 
should be marked with 
an indelible pencil or with nitrate of silver, and the temperature 
and pulse recorded every three hours. Examination on the-fol¬ 
lowing day will determine whether the case is a simple cellulitis, 
or erysipelas, or whether the symptoms are due to hidden pus. 



Fig. 9.—Necuosis and Slough of Skin Due to 
Cellulitis. 






ERYSIPELAS 


3^ 

The severe effect of a peculiarly localized cellulitis is shown 
in Figure 9. The inflammation showed no tendency to spread, and 
no pus was present, hut there was a considerable necrosis of the 
skin resulting in the small ulcer shown in the photograph. Staphy¬ 
lococci were present in the tissues and the discharge. 

Erysipelas. —The face is the most common seat of erysipelas. 
It usually begins on one side of the nose as a dark pink blush. 
The affected skin is slightly edematous, so that the margin of 
the affected area is raised. This edge spreads at an appreciable 
rate, an inch or more a day, though not equally fast in all direc¬ 
tions. There is often pain in the affected part, and the constitu¬ 
tional symptoms are out of proportion to the extent of the skin 
involved. There is usually an initial chill, and the temperature 
is commonly above 102° every afternoon as long as the inflamma¬ 
tion is spreading in the skin. The infection enters the skin 
through some scratch or cut, which can usually be found if looked 
for. In the case of facial erysipelas this break in the skin is usu¬ 
ally to be found inside of the nose. The patient will often remem¬ 
ber to have forcibly removed some crust from the nose a day or 
two days previous to the attack. 

• Treatment. —Compresses wrung out of a five per cent solu¬ 
tion of carbolic acid in equal parts of alcohol and camphor water 
will be found agreeable to the patient, and may assist in limiting 
the spread of the inflammation. The more radical method of em¬ 
ploying carbolic acid is to paint the skin immediately in advance 
of the inflammation with the liquid carbolic acid, ninety-five per 
cent. If the skin is at once wiped off with pure alcohol no injuri¬ 
ous caustic action of the acid will result. In this way extension 
of the erysipelas may sometimes be cut short; but those who have 
the opportunity of treating a large number of cases of erysipelas 
usually doubt the curative power of any application whate\ er. 

If abscesses form, they should be incised. The general condi¬ 
tion of the patient should be watched. Laxatives, light or fluid diet, 
and possibly stimulants, are the essentials of treatment. As ery¬ 
sipelas is conveyed from one patient to another by contact, the sur¬ 
geon should, if possible, avoid touching the patient 01 his < lotlic s, 
and should wash and disinfect his hands at the close of his visit. 
Similar precautions should be observed by the nurse or attendant. 
It is a good plan, if the patient is not too ill, to let him make the 


36 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


applications himself, thereby lessening the risk of infecting some 
one else. 

Boil, or Furuncle. —The face is a common seat for boils, 
which do not, however, reach a large size, for the reason that the 
skin is thin and is well supplied with blood. Every effort should 
be made to cut short the infective process, because the lesion is so 
conspicuous, and also to avoid the disfigurement of a permanent 
scar. 

The diagnosis is simple. The swelling, redness, and tender¬ 
ness early attract the patient’s attention. The only point to he 
decided is whether or not pus has collected in sufficient amount to 
make its evacuation desirable. If it shows as a yellow spot in the 
center of the swelling, the patient will usually permit its evacua¬ 
tion ; and yet the necessity for this is sometimes far greater when 
the pus does not lie so near the surface. The presence of a tender, 
tense, and well localized swelling in or beneath the skin, always 
indicates a collection of pus under these circumstances. 

Treatment. —The best treatment is prompt incision, to allow 
the escape of pus and necrotic material. Specific directions for 
opening boils and abscesses are given on pp. 127 and 763. A 
minute incision will often suffice for these small boils of the face. 
(Compare the treatment of acne pustules, page 33.) One should 
resist the temptation to squeeze pus out of the tissues after the 
incision has been made, as infection is often spread in this manner. 
A very short incision, say not more than a quarter of an inch in 
length, which should usually be crucial or T-shaped to prevent the 
rapid reattacliment of the cut surfaces, is long enough for many 
boils of the face at an early stage. 

In most cases a minute drain, consisting of a loop of thread 
or a narrow strip of gutta-percha tissue, should be placed in the 
wound for twenty-four or forty-eight hours. A wet dressing 
greatly favors recovery. If it is necessary for the patient to go 
about, he may cover the wound with zinc oxid ointment on gauze, 
removing this once or twice a day in order to soak the parts 
with hot water, and at night a large wet dressing should be 
applied. 

In some cases the application of ninety-five per cent carbolic 
acid directly into the center of the boil will stop the process and 
hasten the expulsion of the necrotic portion. In the case of minute 


STYE, OR HORDEOLUM 


37 


boils, the acid may be applied upon a toothpick, even though no 
incision has been made. 

The general condition of the patient should be investigated, 
and necessary advice given concerning diet and exercise. Laxa¬ 
tives are usually beneficial. A tablespoonful of brewer’s yeast 
three times a day before meals is thought by many to have a 
specific action in recurrent cases. Sulphur and its compounds may 
also be given with benefit; for example, half a grain of sulphid 
of calcium twice a day. 

Stye, or Hordeolum. —A small boil at the root of an eyelash 
is called a stye. If untreated, one of these minute abscesses re- 
quires several days for its full development. It often causes great 
pain. Pus then escapes at the edge of the lid, the pain is relieved, 
and in several days the swelling disappears. There is a strong 
tendency to recurrence of the trouble in some other portion of the 
lid, so that it is no uncommon thing for a person to suffer from 
a series of styes, one or more developing at the same time, the 
whole series lasting possibly several weeks. 

Prophylactic treatment, which will also sometimes serve to 
abort a commencing suppuration, consists in the application of an 
ointment containing eight grains of the yellow oxid of mercury 
to the ounce of vaseline. It is also well to wipe the edges of the 
lids occasionally with a cotton swab wet with a 1: 2,000 solution 
of corrosive sublimate. A formed abscess should be punctured 
with a sharp, narrow lancet. If the blade is thin and very sharp 
this is not a very painful procedure, and no anesthetic is required. 
To relieve pain either before or after puncture, hot, moist com¬ 
presses may be applied. Constipation should be corrected. 

Boils of the Nose and Ear. —Small but very painful boils 
form in the skin or mucous membrane attached to the cartilage of 
the ear or nose. Because of the close attachment of these struc¬ 
tures, the pain caused by the swelling is intense. An early incision 
is therefore demanded. Even the injection of a local anesthetic 
is very painful. Hence a strong solution, say a four per cent solu¬ 
tion of cocain, should be employed, so that minute quantities only 
need be injected. The starting point of a boil on the tip of the uose 
is usually on the edge of the nostril or just within it anteriorly. 
After incision a moist dressing should be applied, or the part should 
be soaked with hot water every hour or so, in order to keep the cut 


38 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


open until all the discharge has made its escape. As such boils 
tend to recur, the affected area should he wiped twice daily 
with an antiseptic (creolin, one per cent; bichlorid of mercury, 
1 : 1 , 000 ). 

Abscess. —Suppuration in the deeper tissues of the face, the 
result of injuries and wounds, is usually prevented by the very 



Fig. 10.— Abscess of the Lip. Infection dne to a blow 
by which the lip was cut against the decaj'-ed incisor 
teeth. Photograph six days after the injury. 


free blood supply. 
Abscess may form, 
however, in the 
cheek, lip, or even 
in the tongue. Such 
an abscess occurring 
in the lip is shown 
in Figure 10. 

Abscess of the 
scalp, or rather be¬ 
neath the scalp, of¬ 
ten follows the too 
hasty suture of a 
scalp wound; or it 
may develop from 
small infected 
wounds, especially 
marasmic chil- 


m 


dren. This is not 
to be wondered at. 
While the blood supply of the scalp itself is very free, there is 
just beneath it a loose fascia with large spaces' and few blood¬ 
vessels-—a favorable tissue for the multiplication of germs, once 
they are introduced into it. 

Diagnosis. —These abscesses are not difficult of recognition. 
The classic symptoms of heat, redness, tenderness, and edema are 
well marked. A small abscess in the tongue feels like a buried 
kernel. An abscess of the lip or cheek causes a very great swelling, 
which may obscure the exact presence of the pus until it is revealed 
by palpation. An abscess beneath the scalp yields a distinct wave 
of fluctuation. 

Treatment. —The length of the evacuating incision should 
be determined by the extent and nature of the abscess. In an 






ABSCESS 


39 


acute, rapidly spreading, suppurative cellulitis, incision should be 
made to extend at least as far as the visible pus formation, whereas 
it is quite unnecessary to apply the same rule to the slowly form¬ 
ing abscess of a marasmic child. In the latter case a small open¬ 
ing, equal to one-half the diameter of the abscess, is sufficient to 
effect a cure, and thus hemorrhage is lessened and considerable 
time is saved in the healing of the wound. 

The cavity of the abscess should he washed and wiped clean 
with saline solution or sterilized water and moist cotton swabs or 
dry sterilized gauze. It has been commonly recommended to break 
down any septa which may exist, but, unless these interfere with 
the thorough cleansing of the abscess, they should not be disturbed, 
as they almost invariably contain blood-vessels, and if broken 
down, hemorrhage follows and blood clots are added to the con¬ 
tents of the abscess cavity, and the nutrition of the overlying 
skin is interfered with. Many abscesses of a sluggish nature, if 
emptied and cleansed, will heal without further suppuration. 
Such a result is favored by the introduction of a granular gelatin 
containing formalin. This acts as a drain and contains enough 
formalin to retard suppuration. Or the wound may. he kept open 
by slender strips of gutta-percha tissue or gauze, moistened with a 
weak antiseptic solution. 

Alveolar Abscess. —A common and often severe abscess of the 
face has its origin, as its name indicates, about the root of a de¬ 
cayed or broken tooth. The first sign of its presence is almost 
invariably a toothache. This may he due to congestion merely, 
but a violent toothache indicates pus with far greater certainty 
than most dentists are ready to admit. The pain is at first re¬ 
ferred to the affected tooth; hut as the inflammation spreads the 
nerves leading to other teeth may he pressed upon, and the pain 
referred to those teeth. There are three confirmatory tests to deter¬ 
mine the exact location of the suppuration. Inspection will show 
the greatest amount of swelling in the mucous membrane along¬ 
side of the tooth involved. Secondly, if the teeth are lightly 
tapped with a metal instrument, the patient can usually recognize 
which one is diseased. In the third place, palpation will usually 
reveal the point at which there is the greatest swelling, and this, 
at least in the early stages of the trouble, corresponds to the root 
of the affected tooth. 



40 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


The pus first forms between the root of the affected tooth and 
the bone in which it is placed—that is to say, in the tooth socket. 
As the pus increases in amount some of it may work its way to 
the surface and escape into the mouth alongside of the tooth, This 


Fig. 11.—Alveolar Abscess from Upper Incisor Tooth. Note the site ot maximum 
swelling at the root of the nose. This is not a common type, as the pus usually 
breaks into the mouth early. 

will relieve most of the symptoms, and aside from slight tender¬ 
ness, the only remaining ones may be a little swelling and the 
escape of pus when the patient sucks the tooth or pressure is made 
on the gum. In most cases, however, absorption takes place, and 
the swelling extends beyond the gum immediately around the 
affected tooth. This swelling will next be noticeable in the face, 
and its situation will depend, of course, on the situation of the 
decayed tooth; thus, if an upper incisor is at fault, the swelling 
will appear first at the base of the nose (Tig. 11). If the upper 
bicuspid or molar teeth are involved, the swelling may appear 





ABSCESS 


41 


further back in the cheek; whereas if one of the lower teeth is 
decayed, the swelling will be most marked just below it. 

The infection may travel still further, and involve a lymphatic 
gland. This may be very misleading. The upper teeth drain into 
lymphatic glands situated at the angle of and below the lower jaw. 
If the regional swelling above mentioned is slight and the first 
prominent swelling is due to involvement of the lymphatic glands 
which drain the sockets of the upper teeth, the most marked swelling 
will then appear in the vicinity of the angle of the lower jaw. It is 
well to bear these facts 
in mind, lest finding a 
swelling near the an¬ 
gle of the lower jaw, 
one may falsely con¬ 
clude that a lower 
tooth is at fault. This 
is what happened in 
the case of the boy 
shown in Figure 12, and 
a dentist extracted a 
sound lower tooth. The 
infective process con¬ 
tinued, of course, until 
more intelligent treat¬ 
ment was instituted. 

If an alveolar ab¬ 
scess starts from one of 
the lower teeth, the 
situation of the swell¬ 
ing is a more reliable 
guide to the source of 
the infection. 

Course of tiie Infection. —The pus at the root of the tooth 
may work its way out along the tooth and discharge into the 
mouth. Or, it may bore through the periosteum, and possibly a 
thin layer of bone, and discharge through the gum a little distance 
away from the juncture of the tooth and mucous mom mane sa\ 
a quarter of an inch, d his sinus is more often on the outci than 
on the inner side of the jaw. "\\ ith the discharge of pus the acute 



Fig. 12. —Alveolar Abscess from Upper Molar 
Teeth. Note the site of maximum swelling at 
level of the lobe of the ear. 




42 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 



symptoms subside, but unless the tootli is filled or removed the 
process may repeat itself. 

The pus may strip the periosteum from the maxilla, rupture 
the periosteum, burrow between the mucous membrane and the 
skin, or rupture through the skin externally, either in the cheek 

or beneath the lower jaw 
(Figs. 11, 12, 13). At 
this advanced stage of 
the process fluctuation 
can usually be made out. 

The lymphatic glands 
swell early in the course 
of the inflammation, but 
they do not always sup¬ 
purate. When they do 
suppurate, the hard 
swelling which th 
form below the jaw be¬ 
comes fluctuating. Such 
a condition, secondary 
to infection from an up¬ 
per tooth, is shown in 
Figure 13. 

If an alveolar abscess 
is left to itself, its spon¬ 
taneous rupture either 
into the mouth or ex¬ 
ternally may give tem¬ 
porary relief of symp¬ 
toms or even effect a 
cure. Such relief is often postponed until a portion of the maxil¬ 
lary bone, deprived of its periosteum and bathed in pus, becomes 
necrotic. The sequestrum thus formed will keep up the suppura¬ 
tion. If a patient is examined in this stage he will have a general 
hard swelling, not easily indented by pressure with the finger, 
and which varies in size according to the drainage or lack of it 
through the existing sinus. The decayed tooth which was the 
cause of the trouble may or may not be recognized. Hot infre¬ 
quently the patient has had it removed too late to stop the suppu- 


Fig. 13. —Alveolar Abscess from Upper Tooth, 
Secondary in Lymphatic Glands. The max¬ 
imum swelling is beneath the lower jaw. This 
is also the site of swelling in cases of alveolar 
abscess of the lower teeth, without glandular 
involvement. 





ABSCESS 


43 


ration, gs the bone has already become necrotic. In other cases 
several decayed teeth are present, but no longer sensitive, so that 
it may be difficult to decide which one has caused the trouble. 

A probe passed into the sinus may or may not touch bare bone. 
The positive result of such examination is worth more diagnos¬ 
tically than a negative result. Furthermore, if bone is bare under 
such circumstances it is almost certainly dead. If necrotic bone 
exists the probe may fail to touch it because the sinus is tortuous. 
The sequestrum usually lies to the inner side of the lower jaw, 
and the sinus passes beneath the jaw and reaches the surface of 
the face on the outer side of the jaw. It is not surprising if so 



Fig. 14.— Recurrent Alveolar Abscess. Duration, twenty-five days. 

badly drained an abscess recurs from time to time. Such an ex¬ 
perience was that of the patient shown in Figure 14. 

If the sequestrum is a large one, two or more sinuses may 
exist. In such a case a part of the swelling which exists is due 
to the formation of new bone. The periosteum of the lower jaw 
is abundantly supplied with blood, and does not die easily. If 




44 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


it is stripped up from the old bone by the pus it immediately be¬ 
gins to form new bone, so that in long standing cases the removal 
of the sequestrum may he rendered difficult by the thick shell of 
new formed hone which surrounds it. 

Another possible termination of an acute abscess is a persistent 
sinus. So long as this suffices to carry away the slight discharge, 

it will prevent the re¬ 
formation of an ab¬ 
scess. Usuallv, how- 
ever, the drainage 
obtained in this man¬ 
ner is imperfect, 
swelling or granula¬ 
tions block the sinus, 
edema reappears, and 
if the sinus is not re¬ 
opened another abscess 
forms. Such a sinus 
giving imperfect drain¬ 
age existed in the Chi¬ 
nese patient shown in 
Figure 15. The per¬ 
sistent discharge is an 
indication of the exist¬ 
ence of dead bone or 
a decayed root of the 
tooth. 

Fig. 15.—Chronic Alveolar Abscess from De- continued SWell- 

cayed Tooth, of Seven Months' Duration. . . . .. 

The abscess was lanced, but a sinus persisted. mg usually ail indi¬ 

cation of decay of the 
root of the tooth or of the adjacent bone; there are also cases 
in which, although no sequestrum can be made out and no pus 
escapes externally, the irritation about the roots of the affected 
tooth is sufficient to form a chronic swelling. Possibly in such a 
case there may be a little suppuration which constantly makes its 
escape into the mouth. Figure 16 shows a patient who gave a his¬ 
tory of continued hard swelling long after the active suppuration 
had ceased. As long as such a patient retains the roots of the de¬ 
cayed tooth he is exposed to a recurrence of the acute suppuration. 








ABSCESS 


45 


Finally, alveolar abscess may lead to the development of a 
malignant growth, as shown in Figure 17. 

Treatment. —Treatment at any stage of an alveolar abscess, 
to be considered intelligent, must be directed toward removal of 
the cause. If a toothache is due simply to congestion, a local irri¬ 
tant, such as oil of cloves, chloroform, etc., with or without the 
internal administration of morphine or some other anodyne, may 
be considered appropriate treatment. If, however, the toothache 
is due to an inflammation about the root of a tooth, it must be 
looked upon as a real infection, similar, for example, to a cellu¬ 
litis preceding from an unclean sliver in the finger. The site of 
the infection should be 
thoroughly exposed and 
drained so that absorp¬ 
tion of the poisonous ma¬ 
terial may cease. The 
source of the infection 
is invariably found in 
the decay of a tooth or 
the root of a tooth pre¬ 
viously extracted. Such 
a tooth should be treated 
or extracted without de¬ 
lay, no matter in what 
stage the infection may 
be. If the tooth is con¬ 
sidered by the dentist to 
be worth saving, its cav¬ 
ity should be cleaned 
and disinfected so that 
further absorption shall 
not take place. The fill¬ 
ing of such a tooth may 

1 FiG. 16. — Alveolar Abscess from Decayed 

be postponed until tne Lower Teeth; lanced inside and outside six 

acute symptoms have weeks previously. Roots of teeth not removed. 

’ 17 , . Swelling due to fibrous induration. No sinus 

subsided. It a tootn IS and no puSj as far as can be made out. 

too far gone to be saved, 

it should be immediately extracted. Many dentists object to the 
removal of a tooth if an abscess is present, and advise the patient 






46 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 



to wait until the abscess has been cured. This is bad advice. 
It would be just as logical to wait for a cellulitis of an arm to 

subside before extract¬ 
ing the splinter in the 
hand which caused it. 
In a great many in¬ 
stances the extraction of 
a decayed tooth or of 
an old root will give 
1 he pus formed about its 
deeper portions a free 
opportunity to escape 
into the mouth, so that 
the abscess drained in 
this manner will rap¬ 
idly subside in a few 
hours. Even if suppu¬ 
ration has extended so 
far from the tooth that 
the extraction of the 
latter will not afford 
sufficient drainage, it 
should still be insisted 
upon, as removal of the 
source of trouble will 
hasten the recovery, 
will relieve the patient 
at once of a consider¬ 
able amount of pain, and will prevent also the recurrence of the 
abscess and the other complications spoken of above. 

If further drainage is necessary, as it is in every advanced 
’case of alveolar abscess, the incision should be made through the 
gum rather than through the cheek. In suppuration of the lower 
jaw the drainage through the mouth is an attempt to cause pus 
to flow up hill, but it will in many cases succeed if the incision 
through the gum is a wide one and the abscess cavity is syringed 
out once or twice daily with diluted peroxid of hydrogen and kept 
open by antiseptic gauze. A day or two will prove whether or 
not this attempt will be successful. If not, an external incision 


Fig. 17.—Tumor Following Alveolar Abscess, 
thought to be Sarcoma. Tooth ulcerated 
three and one-half months previously. 






ACUTE CONJUNCTIVITIS 


47 


should also be made. This need not he a very long one, since the 
internal incision should still he kept open, and will provide for 
the escape of most of the pus. An external incision is to he 
avoided, not only on account of the annoyance to the patient of 
a bandage around the head, hut because the resulting scar is some¬ 
times attached to the jaw hone, and thus forms a prominent dim¬ 
ple. This need not be a permanent disfigurement, however, for 
such a dimple may he removed by excision of the scar, dissection 
of the skin for a half inch in every direction, and suture of 
the skin. It is better not to perform this plastic operation till 
some months have passed, lest viable germs in the tissues may 
he roused into activity, and suppuration defeat the end of the 
operation. 

A sequestrum of the jaw, due to delayed drainage, will usually 
loosen in a few weeks, so that it may be extracted through an en¬ 
larged sinus, either within the mouth or externally. Sometimes 
it is necessary to chisel away some newly formed hone to make 
a larger exit. In most cases, if a general anesthetic is given, so 
that the surgeon does not feel the need of haste, he can twist the 
sequestrum hack and forth, and perhaps break off some portions 
of it, until it can he withdrawn without chiseling away any living 
bone. 

INFLAMMATIONS OF THE EYE 

There are some inflammations of the conjunctiva which will 
be here discussed because of their frequency and importance, and 
because they are amenable to local treatment. 

Acute Conjunctivitis, or Simple Catarrh.— Acute in¬ 
flammation of the conjunctiva may be divided, for practical pur¬ 
poses, into the cases which are due to the gonococcus, and into those 
which are not thus caused. The latter cases are sometimes called 
simple or catarrhal or muco-purulent conjunctivitis. 

The usual signs of a mild catarrh are present. The secretion 
is increased, the blood-vessels are injected, there is a little swell¬ 
ing of the conjunctiva. There is a sense of heat and heaviness in 
the eye. In cases which develop spontaneously both eyes are 
affected at the same time or one soon after the other. 

A number of micro-organisms have been isolated fiom ejcs 
in such a mild state of inflammation, and it has been demon 


48 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


strated that catarrhal conjunctivitis may occur in epidemic form. 
One eye may be involved alone as the result of traumatism. 

The inflammation in catarrhal conjunctivitis may go on until 
small ulcers are formed, hut this is the exception rather than the 
rule, and the outcome is complete recovery in almost all cases. 

Treatment. —It is well to remember that most cases of ca¬ 
tarrhal conjunctivitis are distinctly contagious, and the infection 
may he transferred from one eye to the other, or from one person 
to another. Anything, therefore, which comes in contact with the 
affected eye should he immediately sterilized or destroyed. 

In serious cases the patient should he kept in a dark room, and 
several pads of gauze, four or five layers thick, should be kept on 
a lump of ice by the bedside and placed by the patient upon his 
closed eye. Every few minutes, as they become warm, they should 
be changed. Several times a day the eye should he irrigated with 
a three per cent solution of boracic acid. When the irritation is 
less intense, an application of a twenty per cent solution of argyrol, 
or a one per cent solution of nitrate of silver, should be applied 
by the surgeon to the everted lids, and almost immediately neu¬ 
tralized by a saline solution. Or the patient may be given a solu- 
tion of sulphate of zinc, two grains to the ounce, a few drops of 
which he should instill into the affected eye once or twice daily. 
The edges of the lids slioidd be smeared at night with a simple 
ointment, so that they may not adhere and prevent the escape of 
secretion. 

Purulent Conjunctivitis. —Infection of the conjunctiva 
with the gonococcus is a serious affection, since it often produces 
extensive corneal ulcers, which may perforate and allow the iris 
to prolapse, and which in any event are likely to heal with opacity. 

The disease occurs generally in new born infants, or in adults. 
If the child’s eyes are infected during birth, the inflammation ap¬ 
pears from the second to the sixth day. If it appears later than 
this, it is due to postnatal infection. In both infants and adults 
the inflammation is due to contamination of the eye by the fingers, 
or some object which has been in contact with a discharge contain¬ 
ing gonococci. 

In the first day or two the patient notices pain in the eyelids 
and eyeballs, and sensitiveness to light. There are fever and 
swelling of the lymph glands in front of the ears. Later the dis- 


t 


GRANULAR LIDS OR GRANULAR CONJUNCTIVITIS 49 

charge from the eyes becomes purulent, and the swelling of the 
lids is so great that they overlap or are everted. Ulcers of the 
cornea develop. The disease lasts in moderate cases from four 
to six weeks. 

Treatment. —Prophylactic treatment is most important for 
infants and for adults as well. The eyes of every child after 
birth should he carefully washed with sterile water or horacic 
acid solution, and if there is the slightest possibility of contagion 
from the mother, a few drops of a one per cent solution of nitrate 
of silver should he instilled into each eye. Most cases in adults 
are due to autoinfection, and therefore every physician caring for- 
a patient with gonorrhea should explain to him the risk of infect¬ 
ing his eyes, and give him directions in regard to the use of towels, 
cleanliness of his hands, etc. 

The patient with purulent conjunctivitis should remain in bed 
in a darkened room. Ice compresses should he kept on the eyes 
at least one-half of the time, and the eyes should be frequently 
irrigated with a solution of permanganate of potash (1: 10,000). 
The free nse of small doses of calomel will do much to decrease 
the swelling and lessen the risk of corneal ulcers. The edges of 
the lids should he smeared with boric acid ointment to prevent 
their adhering. After the first few days a three or four per cent 
solution of nitrate of silver may he applied by the surgeon to the 
everted lids and neutralized with a saline solution. This treat¬ 
ment may he repeated once a day, or once every second day. The 
patient should he careful not to infect the sound eye, and should 
sleep with this eye uppermost, so that no secretion may trickle into 
it. At the first sign of redness, the sound eye should he treated 
with a two per cent solution of nitrate of silver. 

Stye.—(See p. 37.) 

Granular Lids or Granular Conjunctivitis. —Repeated 
irritation of the eye will often result in an injection of the blood¬ 
vessels of the eyelids, and a dry and rough, almost sandy feeling. 
Badly nourished individuals, such as anemic children and overfed 
adults with a uric acid diathesis, are especially liable to this con¬ 
dition. In many persons it is brought about in a mild degree by 
the excessive use of the eyes, or by the lack of suitable glasses, or 
by exposure to wind or dust. 

An inspection of the lids, and especially the upper one, will 


50 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


show that the normal smooth pinkish lining presents an angry 
appearance, due to the injection of the blood-vessels, and that by 
oblique illumination the surface is irregular, suggesting granu¬ 
lations. 

In mild cases the removal of the cause and the instillation into 
the eye of a few drops of concentrated boric acid solution twice 
daily will speedily effect a cure. If lithiasis exists, urinary dilu¬ 
ents should be given with several glasses of water daily in addition 
to the local treatment. If these simple measures fail, the con¬ 
junctiva of the lids should he wiped occasionally with a crystal 
of copper sulphate. 

Trachoma. — The disease is marked by the formation of 
whitish or pinkish bodies in the conjunctiva, especially of the 
upper lid. It is generally considered to be contagious, although 
it is much more common among anemic children, and those who 
are crowded together in rather unhealtliful surroundings. 

The affected eye, in addition to the granules above mentioned, 
usually shows the signs of catarrhal inflammation, and in a later 
stage there are dilated blood-vessels and the formation of fibrous 
tissue over the cornea as well as over other portions of the eye. 
In this manner the vision may be completely lost. 

Treatment. —One of the best methods of treatment is the 
application of a smooth crystal of sulphate of copper to the af¬ 
fected conjunctiva. Tor fifteen minutes thereafter, cold wet appli¬ 
cations should be made to the eye. In severer cases, the granula¬ 
tions are scraped or cut away or squeezed out. Tor the details of 
such treatment the reader is referred to special text-books upon 
the eye. 

Any treatment to be successful must be continued for months, 
until the tendency to form new granulations has been entirely 
overcome. As the presence of this disease keeps a child out of 
school, and for that reason, even without a permanent impairment 
of sight, seriously handicaps his future, those in charge of public 
institutions containing children should spare no pains to prevent 
this disease and to eradicate it when it occurs. 

Ingrowing Lashes or Trichiasis. —It sometimes happens 
that the eyelashes, instead of growing in the normal direction, 
curve inward and thus become a constant source of irritation to 
the eyeball. This is one of the complications of granular conjunc- 


OTITIS MEDIA 


51 


tivitis. A wedge-shaped strip may be cut from the outer surface 
of the eyelid and the wound sutured. The wedge must, of course, 
include the whole thickness of the cartilage of the eyelid in order 
to secure a permanent eversion of the lashes. The lines of the 
incisions should he parallel to the edge of the lid, and the one 
nearest the edge should he distant from it an eighth of an inch, so 
as to avoid the roots of the eyelashes. For the details of this 
operation the reader is referred to text-hooks upon the eye. Single 
lashes may he extracted by means of smooth forceps—that is, for¬ 
ceps whose points are free from ridges or teeth, for the latter 
would he apt to break the hairs. This is naturally a purely palli¬ 
ative procedure, as the lash will soon grow in exactly as before; 
but the relief occasioned by it is immediate and so gratifying that 
the patient will gladly return month after month to have the 
offending hairs again extracted. 

If only two or three hairs forming a single group are turned 
inward, the simplest method of cure is the removal of a small sec¬ 
tion of the edge of the lid containing these hairs, and the suture 
of the gap thus caused. • 


INFLAMMATION OF THE EAR 

Otitis Media. —This is a common disease of childhood, usu¬ 
ally following a cold in the head. The prominent symptom is ear¬ 
ache. Every physician ought to he able to recognize the bulging 
outward of the membranum tympani and to relieve the pressure 
hv incision of the membrane at the most favorable situation viz., 

1/ 

the inferior and posterior portion. The introduction of waim 
olive oil into the external meatus will sometimes relieve pain, and 
the application of external heat may also he tried; hut the pain of 
a severe earache, unless relieved by puncture of the membrane, 
usually demands'the internal administration of morphine. The 
membrane usually ruptures spontaneously in the course of a day 
or two. Pain is then relieved, and a muco-purulent discharge be¬ 
gins and continues for a time. After it ceases the membrane soon 
heals over. While the discharge continues, the treatment consists 
in cleanliness. The ear should" he syringed gently once or twice a 
day with warm normal salt solution, and wiped dry with absorbent 

cotton. 


6 



52 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


Unfortunately, this simple termination is not the only one 
which is possible, for inflammation of the middle ear may extend 
to the mastoid cells, and result in abscess within the cavity of the 
mastoid bone. If prompt drainage is not instituted, the suppura¬ 
tion may extend into the lateral sinuses and to the membranes of 
the brain, causing the death of the patient. Hence the necessity 
of early recognition of the disease and prompt treatment before 
these serious complications have arisen. 

The external ear should be cleansed by washing it with small 
cotton swabs wet with a warm antiseptic solution, and the mem¬ 
brane anesthetized by the instil¬ 
lation of a few drops of a ten 
per cent solution of coca in. An 
ear speculum should then be 
introduced, the membrane in¬ 
spected by reflected light or a 
headlight, and incised in its 
lower and posterior portion by 
means of a long slender scalpel 
bent in the handle at an angle. 




Fig. 18. —Sketch of the Normal Right Fig. 19. —Angular Knife for Incision 
Tympanic Membrane. Showing the of the Tympanic Membrane. 

correct site for incision. 


figure 18 shows the normal membrane, and the correct size of an 
incision, which should be of sufficient length to permit the escape 
of the pus and mucus. Figure 19 shows a good knife for making 
the incision. 

When the incision has been made through the bulging mem- 







SUPPURATION IN THE FRONTAL SINUSES 


52 


brane, a few drops of pus and mucus and often a little blood will 
escape. Irrigation is not necessary, but the auditory .canal should 
be sponged clean with cotton-tipped probes dipped in a warm 
antiseptic solution. In the case of a nervous or restless child, it 
is best to perform this operation in general anesthesia. The inci¬ 
sion can then be more accurately made. 

The after treatment consists in cleanliness. The canal should 
be wiped or washed clean, and the inner ear protected from tem¬ 
perature changes by a small cone of dry absorbent cotton intro¬ 
duced after each cleansing and as often as the previous cone be¬ 
comes moist. 

Boils. —A description of boils of the external auditory meatus 
is given on page 37. 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NOSE 

Acute rhinitis may be accompanied by a troublesome herpes 
of the lower portion of the anterior nares and the upper lip. The 
application of menthol in albolene (gr. x—5j) gives some relief. 
The surrounding skin should be smeared with carbolic salve to pre¬ 
vent the spread of the process. 

Chronic Rhinitis. —The usual outcome of chronic rhinitis is 
hypertrophy or atrophy of the mucous membrane of the nasal pas¬ 
sages. 

Hypertrophy of the inferior turbinate bone in many cases is 
best cured by removal of the major portion of this bone. This is 
a minor surgical operation, and one whose technical difficulties 
are not great, but the decision as to the necessity for its per¬ 
formance and as to the manner of its removal demands a thorough 
knowledge of the pathology of the nose, which the reader will find 
fully given in books upon that special topic. 

There are, however, two complications of rhinitis which may 
require immediate treatment, and which are therefore here de¬ 
scribed. 

Suppuration in the Frontal Sinuses.— In many cases of 
influenza and other forms of rhinitis the inflammation and swell¬ 
ing of the mucous membrane extends to the accessory sinuses of 
the nose, the most important of which are the frontal sinuses and 
the antrum of Highmore. Such extension prolongs the attack and 


54 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


increases the discharge, but usually subsides in a few days. In 
addition to the general symptoms of infection there are usually 
pain and tenderness throughout the area occupied by the sinus, 
so that the diagnosis is not difficult to make if its possibility is 
borne in mind. 

In certain cases the inflammation becomes purulent in char¬ 
acter. Even then the patient is ordinarily relieved by a discharge 
of pus and mucus through the natural opening. Should relief he 
not afforded in this manner, the sinus may he drained through 
the nose after removal of the middle turbinate. This requires 
special technic. If the symptoms are severe, and especially if 
there is reason to feel that extension to the brain is threatened, 
an incision should he made through the eyebrow and the sinus 
drained directly by chiseling through the bone, either above or 
below the margin of the orbit. This operation is extremely sim¬ 
ple, if one has at hand a small sharp chisel, and in certain cases 
it saves a person’s life. The wound should be drained until the 
suppuration ceases. There is only a slight permanent scar. 

Suppuration in the Antrum of Highmore.— Like sup¬ 
puration in the frontal sinus, this follows acute coryza, but it may 
also be secondary to diseases of the teeth, especially of the canine 
tooth. 

The symptoms are pain and fulness in the roof of the mouth, 
usually with intermittent discharge of pus from the nose. This 
temporarily relieves the symptoms. 

Transillumination is a valuable means of diagnosis. A small 
electric lamp held in the clospd mouth shines through the affected 
side with much less power than through the normal. 

Treatment. —A large, curved trocar and canula should be 
passed through the septum between the antrum and the inferior 
meatus of the nose. Through this canula the pus can be washed 
out. This washing should be repeated daily with warm Dobell’s 
solution. A smaller canula should be employed for the subsequent 
treatment, so that it can be passed through the opening first made 
without difficulty. 

More direct drainage is obtained by chiseling away a part 
of the anterior wall of the antrum through an incision made at 
the reflexion of the mucous membrane from the upper jaw to the 
cheek. This incision should extend from the canine tooth to the 


PERITONSILLAR, ABSCESS 


55 


first molar. If tlie canine or one of the bicuspid teeth is already 
diseased, the opening may he made through its socket. The sinus 
should he irrigated daily for a week or two until the suppuration 
subsides. 

Boils. —(See p. 36.) 

INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MOUTH AND THROAT 

Stomatitis and Gingivitis. —The occurrence of these low 
degrees of inflammation in the mouth usually indicates a low 
degree of vitality, or in certain cases that the vitality has been 
reduced by poisons—for example, mercury. 

Treatment. —The general condition should be improved by 
changes in diet and tonics. If there is a local cause for the trouble, 
such as decayed or neglected teeth, this should be attended to. 
The patient should be given a stimulating mouth wash, such as 
a solution of permanganate of potash, one grain to the ounce; or 
a mixture of tincture of myrrh, one part in twenty of water. The 
inflamed gums may be painted with the tincture of myrrh. 

Such inflammations, even when severe, rarely lead to suppu¬ 
ration, and require no operative treatment. 

Alveolar Abscess. —(Seep. 39.) 

Peritonsillar Abscess. —Certain cases of acute tonsilitis are 
followed by the formation of an abscess, either within the tonsil 
or, as is more common, in the tissues around it. In the latter 
case the most common situation is above the tonsil. 

It is of importance to recognize early the collection of pus, 
either within or outside of the tonsil, since its early evacuation 
before a large abscess cavity has formed greatly shortens the 
course of the disease. Sometimes the patient first recognizes the 
extension of the swelling outside of the tonsil. Inspection will 
show the mucous membrane over the abscess to be of a dusky red 
hue, and the palpating finger will reveal an area of induration with 
fluctuation in its center. Under such circumstances an incision 
should be promptly made. Nothing but pain is gained by delay. 

Treatment. —As soon as the abscess is recognized it should 
be evacuated through a suitable incision. The mucous membrane 
is readily cocainized by the application to it for five minutes of a 
swab wet with a ten per cent solution of cocain. If there is any 


56 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


doubt as to the situation of the pus, aspiration should he per¬ 
formed. A hypodermic syringe is sufficiently large for the pur¬ 
pose, provided a needle of good size be employed. The incision 
should be made in the center of the abscess, the stroke being from 
without inward in order to avoid wounding any deep vessel. 
When the abscess cavity has been opened, the incision may be 
enlarged with knife or scissors in whatever direction will give the 
best drainage. If a drain is to be employed, it is a good plan to 
cut out a small triangular portion of the mucous membrane to 
insure an opening sufficiently large to permit the reinsertion of 
the gauze. It is a good plan to syringe the cavity once or twice a 
day with a mixture of one part of peroxid of hydrogen to eight 
of water. 

Retropharyngeal Abscess. —Abscess between the posterior 
wall of the pharynx and the cervical vertebrae is usually seen in 
badly nourished children, and is secondary to infective processes 
in the nose or throat or ear in the large majority of cases. The 
immediate symptoms of an abscess in this situation are pain and 
difficulty in swallowing and in breathing. The general symptoms 
of unrelieved suppuration, high pulse and temperature, anorexia, 
etc., are well marked. 

The posterior wall of the pharynx bulges forward toward the 
soft palate, and may often be felt to fluctuate when palpated. As 
a further confirmation of the diagnosis, and as a guide to the inci¬ 
sion, the boggy swelling should be aspirated with a needle of good 
size. Pus having been located, should be at once evacuated. It 
is exhausting to the patient to allow it to remain, and there is 
in this case the added danger that the abscess may rupture dur¬ 
ing sleep, and the patient be drowned in the pus which pours into 
his throat. 

Treatment. —When the pus has been recognized, it should be 
evacuated through an incision made in the median line of the 
pharynx as low down as possible. A child should be wrapped 
and pinned in a sheet so that his arms can be easily controlled, 
and a good moutli-gag placed in position. A few inhalations of 
chloroform do not materially add to the risk of operation, and 
spare the feelings of patient, mother, and doctor. Various posi¬ 
tions for the patient have been recommended, all of them with 
the idea of giving the operator a good view of the throat and pre- 




ECZEMA 


57 


venting the evacuated pus from flowing down into the larynx. A 
horizontal lateral position is perhaps as good as any. The finger 
should guide the knife, all hut the point of which should he pro¬ 
tected by wrapping it with adhesive plaster. The most prominent 
point in the swelling should be punctured, and the incision quickly 
enlarged either upward or downward, as the case may require. 
The knife is then withdrawn and the body of the child somewhat 
elevated and turned so that the pus may flow out of the mouth. 
The abscess cavity should be irrigated with saline solution, but 
not drained. By palpation the operator should convince himself 
that a sufficient opening has been made to assure free drainage. 
Hemorrhage may be controlled by a temporary packing of the 
wound with gauze. 

The after treatment consists in attention to the general health 
of the child and irrigation of the cavity, should it show any tend¬ 
ency to close and allow accumulation of pus. Should this not be 
the case, it is unnecessary to annoy the child with irrigation, which, 
of course, has to be carried out in a partially inverted position. 

It has been recommended to open a retropharyngeal abscess 
laterally through an incision made in front of the sternomastoid 
muscle. This route should only be followed in case the pus has 
already burrowed in that direction. Otherwise the dissection is 
difficult and not without risk, and the drainage is not always satis¬ 
factory by this route. 

INFLAMMATIONS OF THE SKIN 

Acute suppurations of the skin are described on page 

Eczema. —Eczema of the face or scalp is often accompanied, 
especially in children, by abundant secretion, which as it dries 
forms crusts. These in turn increase the itching, and as they are 
torn off, raw surfaces result, so that blood mixes with the serum 
in the formation of new crusts. It is not surprising under the 
circumstances that the skin becomes infected and local cellulitis 
develops, or possibly suppuration in the regional lymph nodes 
(see Eig. 77, p. 130). The risk of infection is greatest when the 

eczema involves the scalp of a young child. 

Teeatment. —In order to avoid the complications of infection, 
the scalp should be saturated with sweet oil for some hours to 


58 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


soften the crusts. These should then he removed and the head 
gently but thoroughly washed with hot water and soap, and the 
hair cut short. Compresses saturated with such a lotion as four 
per cent aluminum acetate, or one half per cent creolin, should 
then be applied. When the inflammation has somewhat subsided, 
Lassar’s paste or boracic acid ointment should be used. It is gen¬ 
erally supposed that it aggravates an eczema to wash the skin with 
soap and water, but if this is gently done, the skin thoroughly 
dried, and some greasy application is at once made to replace the 
fat extracted by the soap, the benefits of cleanliness are obtained 
without harmful results. 

Whatever the remedy chosen, such general measures as tend to 
improve the nutrition of the child should be attended to, and 
scratching should be prevented, even though the hands have to 
be tied. 

Ringworm. —Ringworm, whether of the non-liairy skin, 
scalp, or bearded face, is due to the growth in the skin of certain 
fungi. The disease is therefore contagious, and may be trans¬ 
mitted by contact or by an exchange of articles of clothing, towels, 
etc. The patient affected is usually a child or young adult. The 
tendency of the infection to spread equally in all directions gives 
the lesion a more or less circular appearance, and if the skin 
affected contains few hairs the center of the area may have re¬ 
sumed a normal appearance while the growth is still active at the 
periphery. The rate of growth varies, being at first more active, 
so that a ring an inch in diameter may be formed in two weeks 
in the non-liairy skin. Later, there is a tendency for the disease 
to die out, so that the ring may be incomplete or exist only in 
spots. If the ringworm occurs in the scalp or bearded face, the 
scaliness observed upon the non-hairy skin is much exaggerated, 
crusts are added, and there is incomplete loss of the hair within 
the affected area. 

Treatment. —The affected area should be washed free from 
scales and crusts by green soap and water. If the non-hairy skin 
is affected, the disease can be speedily cured by washing the part 
with a solution of bichlorid of mercury, two grains to the ounce 
of water. Other strong antiseptic solutions are equally efficacious. 
If the hairy skin is affected, a depilatory should be applied to get 
rid of the stumps of hair. Stelwagon recommends a mixture of 


SYPHILIS 


59 


three drams of barium sulphid and two and a half drams each of 
zinc oxid and powdered starch. At the time of use, this is rubbed 
to a paste with a little water and applied for five to ten minutes 
and then washed off. Sulphur ointment, diluted if necessary, 
should he rubbed into the area every day or two. Another plan is 
to paint it with a solution of chrysarobin in chloroform, and to 
cover this with two or three coats of collodion. Many other anti¬ 
septics, both in salves and lotions, have been employed with suc¬ 
cess. Badium treatment is very successful. It causes the hair 
to fall out, but it grows again in a few weeks. 

Ulcers. —Simple ulcers of the face occurring in marasmic per¬ 
sons, especially young infants, are readily healed if the general 
condition of the patient can be improved. Cleanliness and a sim¬ 
ple dressing—for example, a wet dressing of creolin, one-half per 
cent—are the only local treatment needed. The question of 

syphilis ought always to be considered. 

Anthrax, or malignant pustule, is found on the hands and 
arms perhaps more frequently than on the face and neck. It is 
described on page 132, where a clear picture of an early pustule 
is given. 

Noma. —This is a localized gangrene of the face and mouth, 
usually seen in a person exhausted by some infectious disease. It 
begins in the mucous membrane of the gums or cheeks. 1 he tis¬ 
sues are first indurated, and then become gangrenous. There is 
no fever. The process leads to perforation of the cheek, loss of 
the teeth, necrosis of the jaw, etc., and usually terminates in death 
within a week or ten days. 


CHRONIC INFLAMMATIONS 

Syphilis. —The primary lesion of syphilis is occasionally 
found in the lip or cheek or tongue. The unusual site of the lesion 
and the fact that it may be found here in the pure-minded, often 
lead to an error in diagnosis. Hence the exact appearance of the 
indurated sore is of great importance. Infection usually takes 
place through a visible break in the skin a cigarette burn in one 
of the cases figured in the accompanying illustrations—but such 
a break will be obscured by the primary sore in a few days. In 
a week or two the induration and redness become marked. 



60 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


If tlie lesion is on the lip (Fig. 20), its development is similar 
to that of a chancre of the penis. There is the same elevated, com¬ 
paratively painless 
swelling with shal¬ 
low ulceration, but 
later the extent of 
the deep indura¬ 
tion usually ex¬ 
ceeds that found in 
an unmixed sore 
of the penis (Fig. 
21 ). 

When the pri¬ 
mary lesion occurs 
in still thicker skin 
(for example, that 
of the cheek), this 
induration and the subsequent ulcer are still larger than is usu¬ 
ally the case when the primary sore occurs in the genitals. In a 
few days the surface is covered with a dry scab (Fig. 22) if the 
lesion is out of the area bathed with the saliva. The regional 
lymphatic glands are swollen, but are not very tender. A few days 
later the scab falls off, 
and a shallow ulcer is 
formed (Fig. 23). As 
healing takes place the 
induration subsides, 
the ulcer becomes 

filled with granula¬ 
tions, and the epithe¬ 
lium grows over it. 

The only permanent 
disfigurement is a 
small scar containing, 
perhaps, a little pig¬ 
ment. This is insig¬ 
nificant when compared with the active lesion, so that in this 
respect the patient may be encouraged. 

The persistence of the lesion for a week or more in a healthy 



Fig. 21.—Chancre of Lower Lip of Three Weeks’ 
Duration. Patient a man aged twenty-four 
years. 









SYPHILIS 


61 


patient, and the large amount of induration without suppuration, 
serve to distinguish the primary sore of syphilis from a simple 
ulcer. The possible youth of the patient, and the disappearance 
of induration either with or without the use of antisyphilitic 
remedies, serve to distinguish it from cancer. Cancer is the more 



Fig. 22.— Chancre of Cheek, Developing in Burn from Cigarette. Duration of 

lesion 2 months.—Patient aged 19 years. 

unlikely if the lesion is in the skin of the face, away from the 
mucocutaneous junction of the lip. 

Treatment. —Local treatment, while not essential, relieves 
the feelings of the patient. The sore should be covered with a 
collodion dressing, or with simple ointment and a small patch of 
muslin. Mercuric ointment, on account of its suggestive color, 
should not be employed—at least by day. Internal treatment is 
all important. A tablet of i of a grain of mercuric protoiodid 




62 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 



should be taken after each meal, or ^ of a grain of mercuric bin- 
iodid with 10 grains of potassium iodid, well diluted in water. 
Some physicians inject, subcutaneously, i grain of bichlorid of 
mercury in water three times a week, or 5 to 8 drops of a ten per 
cent emulsion of the salicylate of mercury in albolene, once a week ; 
but the intravenous use of salvarsan or neosalvarsan is better. 

Secondary Lesions.—Mucous patches which develop in the 
mouth and throat during the secondary stage of syphilis in some 


Fig. 23. —Chancre of Cheek from a Bite. The ulcer is granulating. 

cases make the patient very uncomfortable, and may lead to sup¬ 
puration in the cervical lymph glands. Gargles and sprays of mild 
antiseptics give some relief, but the chief treatment consists in the 
regular administration of mercury and potassium iodid. The sec¬ 
ondary eruption on the skin of the face, and particularly of the 
forehead, annoys the patient by calling attention to his disease. 




TUBERCULOSIS 


63 


Mercuric ointment rubbed into the individual patches at night, and 
wiped off with a dry cloth in the morning, is thought to hasten the 
disappearance of these lesions. 

Occasionally a well-developed le¬ 
sion may be mistaken for a new 
growth (Fig. 24). 

Tertiary Lesions.—Gumma 
may develop in the scalp or face, 
or in the tongue or throat or 
nose. It produces a deep-seated 
ulceration which heals only after 
the permanent destruction of 
more or less tissue. There is 
also a chronic syphilitic thicken¬ 
ing of the tongue known as glos¬ 
sitis. The whole tongue is harder 
and thicker than normal, and the 
mucous membrane in particular 
is furrowed and ridged and more 
shiny than normal. Gumma of 
the scalp often involves not 
only the skin, but the periosteum and a part of the skull, so 
that there may be necrosis of some portions of the outer table 
of the skull. The separation of these necrotic portions may re¬ 
quire months. Until they are entirely removed complete heal¬ 
ing is, of course, impossible. The pus which undermines the 
scalp around the margins of the sequestrum may require incisions 
for its perfect drainage. These late lesions of syphilis, with the 
exception of the glossitis, usually yield readily to antisyphilitic 
treatment, and especially to the administration of large doses of 
iodid of potash up to a dram three times a day. Local treatment 
is unimportant. There is no excuse for keeping a patient s face or 
head smeared with an offensive mercurial ointment. Mercury can 
be administered more pleasantly and more accurately by mouth 01 
by injections or inunctions. Moreover, under suitable moist diess 
ings, repair takes place more rapidly than when mercuric ointment 
is used. This has been demonstrated by careful measurements. 

Tuberculosis. —When the skin is the seat of tuberculosis, the 
lesion is spoken of as lupus vulgaris. The face is the commonest 



Fig. 24.—Papilloma of Lip, Found 
on Microscopical Examination 
to be Syphilitic. Duration of 
lesion 2 months. Patient aged 28 
years. 







64 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE HEAD 


situation for this disease, especially the skin of the nose and 
cheeks. A number of reddish areas as large as a pea, perhaps, 
are first noticed in the coriuin. They pale on pressure, appear¬ 
ing yellowish or brownish. As the disease spreads, the tissue first 
involved may ulcerate, or it may atrophy and become cicatricial 
in character. As the course of the affection is a very chronic one, 
often lasting for years, the appearances of the lesion vary greatly 
and a variety of names have been applied to indicate these differ¬ 
ent stages, the minute description of which will be found in any 
book upon skin diseases. 

Diagnosis. —Small patches of lupus may be confounded with 
psoriasis, but inquiry into the history will usually serve to elimi¬ 
nate this error. The lesions of psoriasis are persistent, but do not 
involve the deeper parts-of the skin, do not extend so steadily, 
and do not ulcerate. Lupus may also be confounded with rodent 
ulcer. In this disease the destructive process is more notice¬ 
able, while the reparative is less so; but in certain instances 
a microscopical examination may be necessary to differentiate 
the two. 

Treatment. —The diseased tissue may be removed by the 
curette, or by caustics, or by the knife. The advance of the growth 
has sometimes been checked by linear scarifications about one- 
eighth of an inch apart and crossing each other at right angles. 
Ultra-violet rays and the x-ray have also been employed with good 
effect in many cases. These last-named agents have the merit of 
destroying the pathologic tissue with far less resulting scar than 
chemical caustics or the knife. 

Tuberculosis of Nose and Mouth.—Tuberculosis of the nose, 
mouth, or throat is of rare occurrence, and when seen is usuallv 
secondary to tuberculosis of the lung. It appears in two forms, 
either productive or ulcerative. Both processes may be exhibited 
in a single lesion. It may be difficult to differentiate tuberculosis 
from syphilis until the blood is tested for the Wassermann reaction 
or a microscopic examination of an excised portion of tissue has 
been made. 

Tuberculosis of the mouth, secondary to the pulmonary disease, 
is shown in the accompanying photograph (Fig. 25 ). 

Treatment. —General hygienic treatment is important. Local 
treatment, such as the application of caustics or the partial exci- 





GLANDERS 


65 


sion of tuberculous tissue, lias little effect upon the progress of the 
disease, while in this situation a thorough excision is impossible. 



Fig. 25. —Tuberculosis of the Gum, Secondary to Pulmonary Tuberculosis. 

Actinomycosis. —This should be borne in mind as one of the 
chronic inflammatory lesions liable to occur in the face, and espe¬ 
cially about the mouth or jaw. It begins as a smooth swelling, 
hut later abscesses form and discharge pus containing yellowish 
granules. These may be recognized by the naked eye or under 
the microscope as colonies of the ray fungus. 'They are character¬ 
istic of the disease. The fungus of the disease in man is similar 
to, hut probably not identical with, that of the disease in cattle 
called “ lumpy jaw.” 

Treatment consists in the excision of diseased tissue, and the 
administration of iodid of potash. It is often unsuccessful. 

Glanders.—This disease of the horse and other animals, when 
acquired by man, usually shows its first growth in the mouth, 
nose, eyelids, or skin of the face. It is characterized by cellulitis, 
lymphadenitis, and inflammatory nodules which break down into 
ulcers with undermined borders. Treatment is by excision and 
drainage. In rapidly spreading cases, the prognosis is grave. 








CHAPTER III 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 

CYSTIC TUMORS 

Milium. —There are often found in the skin of the face, espe¬ 
cially near the eyes, and also in the skin of the external genitals, 
male and female, little whitish masses. They are called milia. 
They are made up of closely packed epithelium and sebaceous 
material, and are situated just beneath the epidermis. A milium 
is distinguished from a comedo, or blackhead, by the fact that 
there is no obstructed duct in the epithelium which covers it. The 
nature of this small tumor is in doubt. 

Milia show little tendency to change their form. As they are 
persistent, their removal is often requested by the patient. The 
overlying epidermis should be split with the point of a small sharp 
scalpel and the contents expressed. This method is less painful 
and more successful than attempts to pick out the mass with a 
needle. 

Comedo. —A comedo, or blackhead, is the lesion produced 
by the blocking of a sebaceous duct. The dark color is due to an 
admixture of dust with the sebaceous material. They are most 
often found upon the face and neck. 

The general treatment which is given for acne (p. 33) is of 
service. After the skin has been softened by hot bathing, the 
individual plug may be loosened by a needle and squeezed out by 
lateral pressure. This pressure should in all cases be slight, lest 
a sluggish inflammatory process be converted into an acute one. 

Sebaceous Cyst. —The tumor of the head that most often 
attracts notice is a sebaceous cyst. These cysts occur either singly 
or in groups, and vary in size from the smallest nodule which can 
be recognized to a sac two inches or more in diameter. They are 
commonest in the scalp, but also occur behind the ear, in the eye¬ 
brow, or (in males) in the skin from which the beard springs. 

66 




SEBACEOUS CYST 


67 


They are found in young adults, but are most common in those of 
middle age. They are due to the blocking up of the duct of a 
sebaceous gland. The sebaceous material manufactured by the 
gland collects within its lumen and gradually distends its cavity. 
As the distention increases, the epithelial lining is also increased 
by a multiplication of its cells. Within such a cyst are found the 
cast-off epithelial cells in a state of fatty degeneration. The mate¬ 
rial contained in a small cyst is semisolid and pasty, while that 
contained in a large one is usually more fluid. The tumor grows 
rapidly at times, but often has long dormant periods during which 
it seems not to grow at all. 



Diagnosis. —The cyst at first grows within the skin, and can¬ 
not he moved independently of it. As it increases in size, it 
spreads in the areolar 
tissue beneath the 
skin. It foil o ws, 
therefore, that in the 
case of a large, non- 
inflamed cvst, the over- 
lying skin is movable 
upon it at all points 
excepting at the cen¬ 
ter. This single fact 
will usually serve to 
differentiate a sebace¬ 
ous cyst from a wholly 
subcutaneous tumor 
—for example, a li¬ 
poma. 

' If left to itself, a 
sebaceous cyst may 
attain a considerable 
size, possibly having 
a diameter of two 
inches, if it is situated 
in the scalp. The usual fate of a sebaceous cyst situated in the 
face is to undergo inflammatory changes (Fig. 26), possibly with 
rupture and discharge of its contents. Such a discharge is, how- 
ever, but temporary, as the sac generally refills in a short time. 




m. 


m 




... 




U- 


■Ms - 




Fig. 26 . —Sebaceous Cyst of Forehead, Moder¬ 
ately Inflamed, and About to Rupture. 


7 










68 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 



Treatment. —Treatment of a sebaceous cyst is operative. To 
o'uard against its recurrence, one should remove the whole sac. An 

cD O 7 

operation to accomplish this is readily performed under cocain, 

unless the patient is 
more than usually 
sensitive. 

In the case of 
a sebaceous cyst of 
the scalp, one should 
proceed as follows: 
First shave and 
cleanse an area of 

the scalp a little 
larger than the 
tumor (Fig. 2 7). 
While shaving adds 
to the convenience 
of the operator, it is 
not absolutely nec¬ 
essary, and primary 

union can usually 

be obtained without 
it. In certain cases, 
therefore, it may be 

better not to sacri- 

Fig. 27 . —Operation for Sebaceous Cyst of Scalp. „ , , 

Slcin prepared. nee any o+ the hair. 

The rest of the 

head outside of the field of operation should be covered with 
towels wrung out of bichlorid solution, 1:1,000. A few drops 
of one per cent cocain solution are next injected along the line 
of incision. This weak solution is desirable in these cases, since 
cocain injected into the head appears to have a more pronounced 
toxic effect than when used in other portions of the body. The 
writer has known the injection of a few drops of a four per cent 
solution of cocain into the median line of the scalp to produce such 
a marked reaction that artificial respiration was twice necessary 
before its effect passed off. 

A straight incision should be made directly across the center 
^ of the tumor, from one edge to the other, extending down to the 



SEBACEOUS CYST 


69 


sac without entering it. If the correct tissue-plane is reached, it 
is usually possible to sweep around the entire sac with the handle 
of the scalpel, or with a curved, closed scissors, and in this manner 
to lift the sac out without rupture (Fig- 2S). 

If, however, the sac is ruptured, the operator need not fear 
that the contents will infect the wound. If this is a risk at all, 
it is certainly a very slight one, since primary union regularly fol¬ 
lows operation in all non-inflamed cases. Even when suppuration 
is present, union of the sutured skin is often obtainable. 



Fig. 2S. —Operation for Sebaceous Cyst of Scalp. Skin divided to the sac and 

retracted. 


If the sac is ruptured, its contents should he at once evacuated, 

and the sac itself peeled out or dissected out. If the cyst is a large 

one, there will he considerable redundant skin after the sac has 

/ • 

been removed (Eig\ 29). I his will shrink in time, so that it is 
not usually necessary to cut any of it away. 

The wound should be closed by interrupted sutures of fine 
black silk or horsehair, and pressure applied most carefully to 
prevent the formation of a blood clot, l or this reason a bandage 




70 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 



about the head, at 
least for two or three 
days, is necessary, ex¬ 
cept in the case.of a 
very small cyst. Af¬ 
ter that a cotton-col¬ 
lodion dressing is 
preferable. 

A sebaceous cyst 
of the face or behind 
the ear is more apt to 
suppurate than one 
of the scalp. This 
suppuration is of such 
a mild character that 
it does not usually de- 


Fig. 29. —Operation for Sebaceous 
Cyst of Scalp. The redundant 
skin collapses after the removal of 
the sac. 

feat primary union if the 
sac is dissected away. It 
does make it very difficult 
to recognize the wall of the 
sac, however, and unless the 
wall is entirely removed re¬ 
currence will take place. 
If, therefore, the abscess is 
pronounced, it is better to 
lance and drain it, explain¬ 
ing to the patient that the 
sac will later fill again with 
sebaceous material and must 
then be removed (Fig. 30). 

An interesting case in 
which a tumor growing 




. 


f-A 


v. otSta 




■ ■ > 


Fig. 30. —Inflamed Sebaceous Cyst Behind 
the Ear. Of many months’ duration; in¬ 
fected three days. 









DERMOID CYST 


71 


from or beneath the skull and lifting the scalp was erroneously 
diagnosed as a sebaceous cyst, is described on page 105 with an 
accompanying illustration. 

Mucous cysts may appear in any portion of the mouth as 
the result of obstruction to the secretion of a mucous gland. They 
are more common on the inner surface of the lips and cheeks. 
They are extremely thin-walled, and are filled with a clear, glairy 
fluid. It is not possible to dissect out the filmy sac, nor is this 
necessary, for if a triangular or circular portion be cut from the 
mucous membrane overlying the sac, the latter will be destroyed 
by granulation during the healing process, so that recurrence need 
not be feared. 

Hanula, or Sublingual Salivary Cyst. —Sometimes a duct 
of one sublingual gland becomes obstructed, and as the saliva accu- 



Fig. 31. — Cyst of Sublingual, Gland—Ranula. Existing one week. Patient, a 

woman aged twenty-eight years. 


mulates a soft cyst forms under the tongue called a ranula (Fig. 
31). In rare cases both sides are affected at once. If the cyst 



72 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


is pricked with a scalpel a teaspoonful of viscid opalescent fluid 
may be expressed. A portion of the wall of the sac should he 
excised, and a rubber tissue drain kept in if possible for several 
days, in order to give the epithelium of the mouth time to unite 
with that lining the cyst. Otherwise the cyst will refill and the 
operation must be repeated. 

Simple Parotid Cyst. —A similar retention cyst may de¬ 
velop from some portion of the parotid salivary gland. As it lies 
under the skin of the cheek, and is not attached to it, it is most 
readily mistaken for a lipoma. It should be removed in to to , 
and if its attachment to the gland is a close one, allowance must 
be made for a continued salivary discharge. If the wound is com¬ 
pletely sutured it will almost invariably fill up with a mixture 
of saliva, serum, and leucocytes. It is better, therefore, to leave 
a minute drain—for example, four or five horsehairs or threads 
twisted together and doubled or a flat gutta-percha drain—in the 
wound, which should elsewhere be sutured. This will allow the 
slight secretion to escape, and in the course of a few days or perhaps 
a few weeks the discharge will cease, and in time the indurated 
nodule caused by the granulation of the little cavity will entirely 
disappear, leaving not so delicate a scar as would have resulted 
from removal of a tumor with primary union, but one which is 
not very noticeable. 

Dental Cyst. —A cyst sometimes forms by the side of a root 
of a decayed tooth. The fluid collects slowly and without the 
usual signs of inflammation (Fig. 32). When evacuated it is 
found to be of a mncous character clouded with epithelial debris. 
Such a cyst is thought to be due to overgrowth of remnants of 
cells concerned in the embryonic development of the teeth. The 
cyst forms within the bone, and its projecting portion is partly or 
wholly covered by a thin layer of bone which may crackle when 
palpated. The exposed wall of the cyst should be cut away and 
its cavity filled with iodoform or other antiseptic gauze and al¬ 
lowed to heal by granulation from the bottom. 

Dermoid Cyst. —A dermoid cyst is of congenital origin, and 
occurs in one of the lines of embryonic closure of the skin. It 
may be apparent at birth, or it may not be noticed until some 
years afterward, when its increase in size first attracts the atten¬ 
tion of the patient or some friend. Some dermoid cysts are made 






DERMOID CYST 


73 


np of a single layer of epithelium, with sebaceous contents, in 
which a few hairs are sometimes found. If the attachment of the 
dermoid cyst to the deeper structures is slight, its removal is 
fimost as simple as the removal of a sebaceous cyst. Some der¬ 
moid cysts have extensive deep attachments, so that their removal 



Fio. 32.— Dental Cyst of Six Weeks’ Duration. There was freely movable skin 
and absence of heat, redness, edema, and tenderness, but the cyst was mistaken 
for alveolar abscess. 

is difficult and may he followed by a permanent sca}\ It is of the 
greatest importance, therefore, that a correct diagnosis of dermoid 
cyst be made before its removal is attempted. 

Differential Diagnosis. —A mistake in diagnosis l ies chiefly 
between a dermoid cyst and a sebaceous cyst 5 hence the importance 
of considering in detail the points of difference. The common 
situations in which sebaceous cysts are found have alieady been 



74 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 



spoken of. They include nearly all the situations in which a der¬ 
moid cyst of the head is likely to be found. Dermoids occur 
chiefly about the inner or outer angle of the orbit, or in front 
of or behind the ear (see Digs. 33, 34, and 35). A sebaceous cyst 
is rare in childhood; dermoids occur in infancy, childhood, and 
adult life. A sebaceous cyst is always attached to the skin at one 
point; a dermoid is usually covered by normal, freely movable 
skin. A sebaceous cyst is invariably movable with the skin on 

the deeper structures; 
the base of a dermoid is 
invariably attached to 
the deep facia or to the 
periosteum, or, in case 
of the ear, to the peri¬ 
chondrium. This point 
is not always easy to 
make out, since the more 
superficial portion of the 
dermoid cyst may swing 
back and forth upon its 
own fixed base, but to 
slide the cyst as a whole 
backward and forward is 
impossible. Both cysts 
plainly fluctuate when 
they have reached a suf¬ 
ficient size. 

During the operation 
it will be noticed that 
the sac of a dermoid cyst 
is usually thicker than 
that of a sebaceous cyst, and that this is especially true of its 
deeper portion. Furthermore, the attachment of its base will be¬ 
come more and more manifest as an attempt is made to dissect it 
free. It can never be freed by blunt dissection, since it is anatom¬ 
ically connected with the deeper tissues. If it contains hairs the 
diagnosis is certain. 

A dermoid cyst which contains little sebaceous matter and does 
not fluctuate may be mistaken for a lipoma or a small, deep-seated 




Fig. 33.—Dermoid Cyst of the Nose, Noticed 
Soon After Birth. 





DERMOID CYST 


75 


angioma. Tlie size of the latter can always he reduced by com¬ 
pression, but it is promptly restored when the relief of pressure 

allows the blood-vessels 



Fig. 34. —Dermoid Cyst in Front of the 
Ear, Growing for Five Years. Pa¬ 
tient aged twenty-two years. 


to refill. 



Fig. 35. —Dermoid Cyst Behind 
the Ear, Closely Resem¬ 
bling a Sebaceous Cyst in 
External Appearance. Pa¬ 
tient aged 24 years. 


Treatment. —The incision for the removal of a dermoid cyst 
near the orbit should be made through the eyebrow, the hair first 
having 1 been shaved off, or it should follow the direction of a wrinkle 
in the forehead or about the angle of the eye, so that the scar shall 
be insignificant. The separation of the overlying skin from the 
cyst is easily accomplished, while the dissection of the base of the 
cyst from the bone may be difficult. Tor this reason, unless the 
patient is of a very quiet and courageous disposition, it is belter 
to give a general anesthetic, as it is difficult to obtain complete 
anesthesia of the part of the cyst adherent to the periosteum by 
means of cocain or eucain. After most of the sac has been freed, 
it should be split open and emptied, so that the operator may know 
exactly how far its cavity extends. Sometimes flic cyst con be 
dissected free from the periosteum without injury to the latter. 
"More often a part of its base is really formed by the periosteum, 












76 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


so that the complete removal of the cyst will necessitate the le- 
moval of a little periosteum. This is not a serious matter, as 
necrosis will not follow unless the wound suppurates. The oper 
ative wound should he sutured and a firm dressing applied to 
obliterate the cavity due to the removal of the cyst. 

When the dermoid cyst is situated in front of or behind the 
ear, it may be so closely associated with the cartilage of the audi¬ 
tory canal that its inner portion reaches to the base of the skull. 
Under these circumstances, as much of the cyst as is accessible 
should be removed and the remainder should be cauterized with 
carbolic acid. 

Congenital Sinns. —The first pharyngeal cleft terminates 
just in front of the ear. This is a region in which inclusion cysts 
and sinuses are found. Such sinuses are often similarly placed in 
front of both ears. They are usually small, and being lined with 
the normal skin, secrete very little. They may become obstructed 
and fornf cysts. 

The only satisfactory treatment is the removal of the whole 
sinus or cyst by dissection. Any epithelial remainders are apt to 
develop into cysts. 

The sinuses formed by the partial closure of the lower phar¬ 
yngeal clefts are described in the section devoted to affections of 
the neck (p. 137). 


BENIGN SOLID TUMORS 

Papilloma. —This tumor growing from the skin or mucous 
membrane usually resembles a more or less pedicled wart. It is 
composed of fat and fibrous tissue covered with essentially normal 
skin. 

Treatment. —It may be snipped off level with the skin, but 
if at all sessile its base should be removed by two incisions, which 
remove an elliptical portion of skin containing the base of the 
tumor. This guards against recurrence, and permits the smooth 
closure of the wound. A papilloma of the lip may be mistaken 
for the primary lesion of syphilis; that of the skin for a cancer 
(Fig. 36). 

Mole. —A mole is a congenital pigmented fibroma of the skin 
more or less elevated above the surface. Sometimes in addition 



MOLE 


77 


to its excessive pigment, a mole contains liairs abnormally large 
for the situation in which they occur. 

While most moles persist for life without undergoing any 
change, a few take on sarcomatous growth, cither on account of 
external irritation or for some unknown reason. For this reason 
one is justified in removing any mole. They are chiefly removed, 
however, on account of their unsightly appearance. 

Treatment. —In removing a mole, one should he careful to 
take away all the cells of which it is composed, lest those remain- 



Fig. 36.—Papilloma of Skin Occurring in a Scar, Diagnosed as Lancer. The 
diagnosis was corrected by microscopical examination. Compare Fig. 5 , P- 

ing he stimulated to increased growth. For this reason caustics, 
whether chemical, thermal, or electrical, are not to he recom- 
mended. Excision is tlie method of choice, and may he performed 

in two ways. 






78 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


If the mole is small it should be seized with fine mouse-tooth 
forceps and elevated slightly above the surrounding skin. It may 
then be snipped off with a sharp scalpel or a pair of curved scis¬ 
sors. No local anesthetic is necessary. When the removal is prop¬ 
erly done, all of the pigmented tissue is removed, and in its place 
there is a small oval loss of epithelium. This defect heals without 
permanent scar. 

In the case of larger moles, especially if they are so situated 
that a linear scar will not be objectionable, a different method of 
removal is preferable. The mole should be excised, together with 
the underlying portion of the true skin. The area of skin involved 
should first be cocainized. An ellipse is then marked out, having 
the mole as its center. The cut which separates this section of 
skin should everywhere be perpendicular to the surface, in order 
that the cut edges may fit exactly when sutured. The removal of 
the elliptical portion of skin is sometimes followed by hemorrhage. 
This can usually be stopped by a few minutes’ pressure, or by 
crushing the bleeding vessel with an artery forceps. The next 
step is to undermine the surrounding skin for a distance of a third 
of an inch or less, so that the tension upon the sutures may be 
slight. If the skin is lax, as it is about the eyes, this step may 
be safely omitted. If the skin is firm and is not undermined, the 
scar may stretch after the removal of the sutures until it is nearly 
as broad as the portion of skin which was removed. 

One or two horsehair or fine silk sutures should be inserted. 
It is well to remove these in three or four days, so that there may 
be no permanent marks to indicate the stitch holes. Tension upon 
the scar may thereafter be reduced by a strip of adhesive plaster. 

Lipoma. —A lipoma is a tumor composed of fat with a mini¬ 
mum of fibrous tissue. It usually has a well-marked capsule. 

Lipoma of the face is most often found in the forehead, where 
it forms a smooth, flattened tumor usually about three-fourths of 
an inch in diameter (Tig. 37). Its attachment to the skin is 
slight, being noticeably less than the attachment of a sebaceous 
cyst. Moreover, the tension within the sac of a sebaceous cyst is 
usually greater than that within the capsule of a lipoma. It is 
well known that an encapsulated tumor will sometimes fluctuate, 
although it contains no fluid. This is particularly true of a lipoma 
of the forehead, which gives just as good a fluctuation wave on 


FIBROLIPOMA 


79 


account of the hard hone beneath it as a sebaceous cyst can give. 

A sebaceous cyst is more globular than a lipoma, and projects far 
more above the level of the surrounding skin (cf. Fig. 26, p. 67). 

Treatment. —If left alone a lipoma shows little tendency to 
increase in size, hut it is so conspicuous that its removal is desir¬ 
able. This is easily accomplished if the lobules of fat are large 
and the capsule well defined. 

The skin is cocainized, and an incision made across the center 
of the lipoma in the direction in which the scar will he least con¬ 
spicuous. This is in 
a horizontal direction 
in the case of the 
forehead. The inci¬ 
sion should divide 
the skin and also the 
capsule of the lipo¬ 
ma. When this has 
been done, the li¬ 
poma itself can he 
shelled out by blunt 
dissection with little 
difficulty. If one 
finds the dissection 
difficult, it is certain 
that he is not fol¬ 
lowing the plane be¬ 
tween the capsule 
and the lipoma 
proper. As this tu¬ 
mor shows no incli¬ 
nation to recur, it is 
unnecessary to re¬ 
move the capsule. 

The wound should be closed by interrupted sutures, or the sutures 
may be omitted, since in this situation there is little tendency for 
the cut edges to retract. The best dressing is a cotton-collodion . 
one. 

Fibrolipoma. —A fibrolipoma of the head has the usual 
characteristics of this tumor when found in other portions of 



Fig. 37. —Lipoma of Forehead, Duration One Year. 



30 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


the body (p. 185). A fibrolipoma in an unusual situation is shown 
in Figure 38. Its attachment was to tlie skin of the external 

auditory canal. 

Angioma. —Angioma of 
the face is of common oc¬ 
currence in early infancy. 
A small patch of dilated 
capillaries and veins, often 
called a nevus, may be pres¬ 
ent at birth. This lesion in¬ 
creases rapidly, so that early 
treatment is desirable in or¬ 
der to avoid unsightly deform¬ 
ity. The vessels dilated are 
usually those of the super¬ 
ficial portion of the skin, al¬ 
though in some instances the 
deeper vessels alone are af¬ 
fected, or it may be that the 
center of the nevus reaches 
the surface of the skin while 
its edges extend into the 
deeper portions of the skin, 
but are covered with normal epithelium. If the angioma reaches 
the surface it can scarcely be confounded with anything else, but 
a deep angioma containing much fibrous tissue may be taken for 
a fibrolipoma. Possibly a contusion with hemorrhage into the 
loose tissue around the eyelids might be mistaken for a commenc¬ 
ing nevus, but the lapse of a few days would suffice to distinguish 
the two. Pressure upon a vascular tumor empties its vessels and 
makes it white. As soon as the pressure is removed, the vessels 
immediately refill. Pressure upon effused blood causes its disap¬ 
pearance only to a slight degree. This difference is most strik¬ 
ingly shown if the pressure be made with a bit of transparent glass, 
so that the effect can be seen through it. 

Treatment. —Capillary angiomata are successfully treated by 
punctures with a fine needle which constitutes the negative pole of 
an electric battery. For this purpose the battery should contain 
from a dozen to thirty small cells. The positive pole should be a 



Fig. 3S. —Fibrolipoma of Auditory Ca¬ 
nal, Duration One Year. Patient, 
aged nineteen years. 








ANGIOMA 


81 


moist sponge, while a fine cambric needle or, better still, a jeweler's 
brooch is screwed into the handle connected with the negative pole. 
The sponge is held closely against the face while the needle is 
thrust into the skin at right angles to its surface from one-fourth 
to one-third of an inch. It is important that the needle inserted 
should be the negative pole, for if it is the positive pole bubbles 
of oxygen will form around it and will produce upon it oxid of 
iron, some of which, remaining in the tissues after the needle is 
withdrawn, may cause a permanent discoloration. The current 
should be sufficiently strong to produce a white zone about the 
needle one-eighth of an inch in diameter in ten or twenty seconds. 
If it is too strong the escharotic action is too vigorous and a per¬ 
manent scar is produced. If it is too weak the cauterization is 
insufficient and the puncture is apt to bleed badly when the needle 
is withdrawn. Half a dozen punctures may he made at one 
sitting, and the treatment may be repeated twice a week. The 
pain is intense, but no anesthetic is required, as the pain does not 
continue after the removal of the needle, and even a delicate baby 
suffers no injury from the treatment. If the punctures are judi¬ 
ciously made, and the treatment is continued until every red vessel 
disappears, in place of the angioma there will he a cicatrized area 
marked here and there by little pits due to too vigorous cauteriza¬ 
tion. If the nevus is wholly superficial the scar will be extremely 
slight. The site of a deeper tumor, especially if it contains large 
vessels, will be marked by a thickened and more abnormal patch 
of skin. It may be of advantage to perform a partial excision of 
such a nevus at some stage of the treatment by electrolysis. 

Another method of treatment by which good results are ob¬ 
tained is the coagulation of blood in the vessels by the injection 
into the nevus of a few drops of boiling water almost at the boiling 
point. The effect of heat applied in this way should he great 
enough to produce coagulation, as shown by the immediate pallor 
in the portion of the nevus so treated. After a few days the per¬ 
manent effect of the treatment will he manifest, and if red spots 
remain additional injections should be made. C oagulation also 
may be produced by pressing into the skin, for three minutes 01 
more, a pencil of carbonic acid snow, obtained by allowing the gas 
to escape through chamois leather. I lie treatment must he le- 
peated a number of times to effect a complete cure. 


82 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


Treatment by Operation. —If an angioma is made np of 
larger vessels, either veins or arteries, it is readily compressible 
and may pulsate (Figs. 39 and 40). Electrolysis is useless in 
such a case, and the tumor must he removed by operation or its 



Fig. 39. —Pulsating Angioma of Scalp, Congenital. The photograph shows it 

fully distended. 


vessels ligated. This operation is serious in the case of an infant, 
for the hulk of its blood is so small that it will succumb to a 
hemorrhage which does not seem large to one accustomed to oper¬ 
ate only upon adults. Even when the operation is upon an adult, 
every precaution should he taken to limit the hemorrhage. There 
should he plenty of artery clamps at hand. One assistant should 
have nothing to do except to control hemorrhage hy pinching the 
surrounding skin or pressing it against the skull. Even then the 
bleeding will not he under perfect control, since the vessels of the 
tumor often anastomose with the veins inside of the skull. As 
fast as the incision is made the cut vessels should he clamped. If 
there is plenty of skin to cover the wound without using any of 






ROSACEA HYPERTROPHICA 


83 


that which covers the vessels of the tumor, the whole incision 
should he made before the base of the tumor is cut into. In this 
way much of its blood-supply will be shut off before the most dif¬ 
ficult part of the operation, namely, the dissection of the base, is 



Fig. 40.— Same Tumor as Fig. 39, but Photographed Immediately after the 
Fingers which were used to Compress the Tumor had been Removed. As 
the volume of the tumor increased very rapidly when released, this figure does 
not show it at its smallest. 


attempted. If the skin of the tumor is needed, one lateral inci¬ 
sion should be made, the base next dissected, and the collapsed 
tumor cut away from as much of the overlying skin as is needed 
to cover the wound, which should be accurately closed by suture. 
The dressing should be a firm one, but sufficiently elastic, so that 
the pressure exerted may not threaten the vitality of the skin. 

Rosacea Hypertrophica, or Rhinophyma. —This is an 
overgrowth of the nose, which is generally considered to be one of 

O 7 

8 





84 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


the forms of rosacea, but is here included with the tumors to which 
it belongs clinically, for the appearance of the lesion and the treat¬ 
ment warrant this classification (Fig. 41). 

This is a disease of middle life, or later, marked by a great 
overgrowth of the sebaceous follicles, with their ducts, as well as 
of blood-vessels and fatty tissue. The skin itself is not greatly 
thickened, and may even be thinned, apparently the result of over¬ 
stretching it. The tumor as a whole is soft and flabby, of dark red 



Fig. 41. —Rosacea Hypertrgfhica of the Nose, of Seven Years’ Duration. 

Patient aged sixty-nine years. 


color, due to the venous congestion. It is not necessarily the result 
of alcoholism, and many of these patients are unjustly accused of 
intemperate habits. 

Lesser degrees of hypertrophic rosacea of the nose are fre¬ 
quently found. Such an extreme overgrowth as is shown in Fisr- 
ures 42 and 43 is decidedly exceptional, although even more 
marked instances are occasionally seen. 

Although this overgrowth is benign in character, the excess of 






ROSACEA HYPERTROPHICA 


85 



tissue should he removed, as this can he accomplished without 
much risk, and the feelings of the patient will thereby he spared 
many mortifying re¬ 
marks. 

Treatment. —This 
consists in the re¬ 
moval of wedge- 
shaped pieces of the 
growth, so that the 
normal contour of the 
nose may he restored. 

The spongy tissue is 
very insensitive, so 
that a small amount 
of a dilute solution of 
eucain or cocain is 
sufficient. II e m o r - 
rhage is free, hut may 
he controlled hy pres¬ 
sure and ligatures. 

Although these pa¬ 
tients are usually 
plethoric and stand 
very well the loss of 
hlood, it may he ad- 

7 o 

visah 1 e to remove 
only a portion of the 
growth at one sitting. 

This plan has the fur¬ 
ther advantage of en¬ 
abling the surgeon to 
observe the effect of a 
partial removal of the 
tumor before complet¬ 
ing the task. Re¬ 
moval may he effected 
in such a way that 
pedicled flaps are uti¬ 
lized to cover the raw 


Fig. 42.—Rosacea Hypertrophica of the Nose, 
Four Years’ Duration. Front view. 


Fig.' 43.— Same Subject as Fig. 42. Side view. 












86 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 



Fig. 44. —Same Subject as Fig. 42, Showing the 
Results of Operative Treatment for Rosa¬ 
cea Hypertrophica of the Nose; Three Weeks 
After First Operation, and One Week After 
Second Operation. 



Fig. 45. —Same Subject as Fig. 42. Side view, one 
week after the second operation. 


spaces. Their vital¬ 
ity is low, and unless 
the pedicle is very 
broad, they are likely 
to slough. There¬ 
fore it is advisable 
not to undermine 
them too extensively. 

The results of this 
plastic surgery are 
very satisfactory 
(Figs. 44 and 45). 
In some cases, if the 
quality of the skin is 
too poor, it is better 
to shave of! all of 
the tissue down to 
the cartilage and to 
cover the wound with 
skin grafts. 

Hypertrophy 
of the Tonsil and 
other Lymphoid 
Structures in the 
Naso-pharynx and 
Pharynx. —The 
faucial tonsil is fre¬ 
quently enlarged, es¬ 
pecially in children, 
either as a sequence 
of repeated attacks of 
tonsillitis or of some 
other infectious dis¬ 
ease, such as scarlet 
fever, diphtheria, or 
measles. In children 
hypertrophy of the 
tonsils is frequently 
associated with hy- 










HYPERTROPHY OF THE TONSlG 


87 


pertropliy of the lymphoid tissue in the naso-pharynx, commonly 
called adenoids, with hypertrophy of the lymphoid tissue at the 
base of the tongue, the so-called lingual tonsils, and enlargement 
of the cervical lymphatic glands. 

Symptoms produced by tonsillar hypertrophy may be very 
slight, or the enlargement may be sufficient to interfere with nor¬ 
mal swallowing and to favor and make more severe attacks of acute 
tonsillitis. Adenoids often obstruct the posterior nares to such an 
extent that the patient breathes through his mouth when asleep, 
and sometimes during the day as well. For these reasons, sur¬ 
gical treatment is frequently indicated. 

Diagnosis. —The diagnosis of hypertrophy of the tonsils 
is made by direct inspection. If one can see them during a 
period of acute inflammation, as well as in the intervals be¬ 
tween such attacks, he can best judge of the necessity for their 
removal. 

The diagnosis of hypertrophy of the lingual tonsil is made 
from the image reflected in a throat mirror. 

The diagnosis of adenoids is made from the image reflected 
in a rhinoscopic mirror, when this can be obtained. It can also 
be made by palpation with the forefinger, and can be assumed 
from persistent mouth breathing, especially if the anterior nares 
are not obstructed. There is also an alteration in the sound of 
the voice, and a postnasal catarrh. In extreme cases the facial 
expression is altered. Partial deafness may result. 

Treatment. —Tonsilectomy is the term applied to the removal 
of a hypertrophic tonsil. The ancient practise of destroying a por¬ 
tion of such a tonsil by the cautery, or merely excising the pro¬ 
jecting portion, has largely yielded its place to a complete removal 
of the tonsil. This may be done under a local or a general anes¬ 
thetic. The choice depends more on the character of the indi¬ 
vidual than on the condition of the tonsils. Those called for the 
first time to operate upon a young child will do well to employ a 
general anesthetic. 

The mouth is opened, a mouth gag inserted, the tonsil seized 
with a slightly curved forceps having two or three prongs, and 
lifted from its bed. It may then be cut oil with a tonsillotome, 
or dissected with scissors or a knife. If the latter method is 
chosen, it is only necessary to divide the mucous membrane*, the 





Fig. 4G. —Instruments Used for the Removal of the Tonsil. A, tonsillo- 
tome (this instrument is not used by many operators) ; B, mouse-tooth forceps; 
C, sponge holder, of which several should be at hand; D, E, blunt pointed knives; 
F, tongue depressor; G, mouth gag; H, tonsil forceps; I, long curved forceps; 
J , long curved scissors. 
















HYPERTROPHY OF THE TONSIL 


89 


tonsil can then be shelled from its bed by blunt dissection with 
the finger or a suitable instrument. In this way the tonsil can be 
removed more perfectly than with a tonsillotome (Fig. 46). 

If a local anesthetic is decided upon, the mucous membrane 
should be anesthetized by the application of a strong solution of 
cocain or stovain, ten or twenty per cent. There is less danger of 
poisoning if the anesthetic is applied upon a swab rather than 
in the form of a spray, but the swab should not be so wet as to 
allow the solution to trickle down the throat. Another good plan 
is to inject a few drops of a ten per cent solution of stovain in 
adrenalin, 1: 2,000, into the tissues before beginning the opera¬ 
tion. 

Hemorrhage following the removal of the tonsil is free and 
removal of blood from the throat by an electric pump or other 
suction apparatus, makes operation easier, shorter and more accu¬ 
rate. As soon as the tonsil is out, gauze should be pressed against 
the raw surface. Bleeding usually subsides promptly, but it is 
well to have on hand small gauze sponges, a long curved clamp and 
adrenalin solution in case of renewed bleeding. An astringent 
gargle is also serviceable. The patient should gargle the throat 
every few hours with iced Dobell’s solution somewhat diluted. In 
most cases the pain which results is slight. 

Hypertrophy of the lingual tonsil, giving rise to persistent 
cough or husky speech, may require operation. The excess of 
tissue can be removed with a galvanocautery or a specially con¬ 
structed tonsillotome. 

Treatment of Adenoids. —Although adenoids tend to 
atrophy about the period of puberty, it is unwise to an ait foi then 
spontaneous disappearance, if they give rise to definite symptoms 
as described above. They should be removed by operation, pref¬ 
erably under a general anesthetic, although the postnasal space 
is readily anesthetized by a ten per cent solution of cocain in a 
1: 2,000 solution of adrenalin chlorid, applied on cotton wound 
on a bent probe. 

If the child is chloroformed, it may lie with its head lower 
than its shoulders, or not, according to the operator’s preference. 
In any case, a mouth gag is inserted, the tongue is drawn forward 
and the adenoids are removed either with a specially cuived curette 

or with a pair of forceps. 


90 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 



Fig. 47. —Instruments Used for the Removal of Adenoids. A, tongue de¬ 
pressor; B, mouth gag; C, adenoid curettes. 

Epulis.—A growth which resembles a papilloma in appear¬ 
ance, but which is much denser, is called an epulis. It usually 
springs from the gum, along the outer side of the molar teeth. As 
it grows it takes on the shape of the space in which it lies, and 
therefore appears to have a broad attachment. When it is lifted 
up from the mucous membrane it will often be seen to have an 
extremely narrow pedicle. It is a dense hard tumor, covered with 
mucous membrane having a normal appearance. 

An epulis grows slowly, and without pain, but it should be 
thoroughly removed because of its constant tendency to increase 
in size, and also because in structure it closely resembles a spindle¬ 
cell sarcoma. If the growing base of the tumor in the mucous 


Following operation, the nose and throat should be frequently 
sprayed with a diluted Dobell’s solution, or some other dilute dis¬ 
infectant. 













OSTEOMA, OR EXOSTOSIS 


91 



membrane is excised, it is not likely to recur. The specimen 
should in all cases he examined microscopically. 

Otoliths. —Calcareous bodies, called otoliths, often form in 
the fatty portion of the ear. They are similar in character to the 
deposits which are found elsewhere in the body in gouty indi¬ 
viduals. In the ear these discrete nodules may be so large as to 
be noticeable and to annoy the patient. They are easily removed 
through small incisions. 

Osteoma, or Exostosis. —This is a benign tumor, being a 
simple outgrowth of bone. It is easily recognized as having the 
consistence of bone, to which it is firmly attached. It is covered by 
normal skin, fat, etc. Such a tumor is very rare in the face (Fig. 


Fig. 48.— Exostosis of Jaw. Two or three years’ duration. 

• 

48). It is commoner in the skull. If it is decided to remove it, 
the skin and other parts should be divided and reflected so as to 
expose the exostosis. This should be chiseled away, together with 
the periosteum which covers it, as the possibility oi lccunence 




92 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


should be borne in mind. While this operation takes only a few 
minutes, it is difficult to anesthetize hone. Therefore, during the 
chiseling the patient’s sensibilities should be benumbed by chloro¬ 
form or nitrous oxid gas, or, if preferred, the whole operation 
may be performed under a general anesthetic. Such tumors should 
be examined microscopically. 

Spur. —An exostosis, or a cartilaginous tumor projecting from 
the floor or septum of the nose and covered with normal mucous 
membrane, is called a spur. If of sufficient size to interfere with 
normal breathing, it should be removed with a blunt-pointed saw, 
the parts having been first anesthetized by the application of co- 
cain or stovain upon a cotton swab. Bleeding may be controlled 
by adrenalin, or by the tip of a galvanocautery, an instrument 
which is utilized by some for the removal of the spur. 

Deviation of the nasal septum is considered on page 109. 

MALIGNANT TUMORS 

Epithelioma. —An epithelioma may develop in any portion 
of the epithelium covering die head or lining its cavities. It is 
common at the mucocutaneous junctions of the eyes, ears, nose, 
and mouth (Fig. 49). 

Its origin, like that of malignant tumors in all situations of 
the body, is sometimes apparently due to a wound or to a long- 
continued irritation, but often such a provoking cause seems want¬ 
ing. Sometimes a wart or mole which has remained of essentially 
the same size for years will begin to grow rapidly, and if not 
removed will develop characteristics of a malignant tumor. In 
other cases the tumor starts as an ulcer almost from the beginning. 

It is in the class of cases in which a simple wart or mole as¬ 
sumes malignant development that surgery has an important part 
to play. A patient may have noticed such a localized thickening 
of the epithelium as is shown in Figures 50 and 51 for years. 
Gradually the cells begin to multiply and the tumor increases a 
little in size. This should inevitably be the .sign for removal of the 
growth. At this stage it has not begun to infiltrate the skin. 14or 
has it extended into the deeper tissues. Hence a radical cure can 
be effected by the removal of the tumor without any of the sur¬ 
rounding tissues. Such a simple operation can be performed in a 


EPITHELIOMA 


93 



few minutes under 
local anesthesia, and 
need not he followed 
by any permanent scar. 

On this account a pa¬ 
tient will readily con¬ 
sent to the operation. 

While it is prob¬ 
able that many of these 
hitherto benign tumors 
will never become ma¬ 
lignant, it is certain 
that some of them will 
do so, and in any event 
the operation frees the 
patient of an annoying 
blemish. Those that 
develop into malignant 

growths infiltrate the 

skin and ulcerate in Fig, 49.—Epithelioma of Face near Nose. Du¬ 
ration six years; slight ulceration. 

the older portions, and 

gradually assume the usual characteristics of carcinoma of the sur¬ 
face with an elevated growing margin, usually of an irregular 



Fig. 50 .—Epithelioma of the Lip Developing in a Soft \\ art which 

since Childhood. New growth noticed nine months previous. I atient ag 
fifty-six years. A similar wart on nose has recently shown increased growth. 





94 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


character. But even at this stage epithelioma of the face is not 
of rapid growth, and a year or so may elapse before the tumor 
reaches the diameter of an inch. This is equally true whether the 



Fig. 51. —Same Subject as Fig. 50, Three Months after Removal of the Epi¬ 
thelioma of Lip. The scar could only be seen by close inspection; one of the 
advantages of early operation. 


tumor is at first of the papillomatous type (Fig. 52), or whether 
it early infiltrates the shin and ulcerates (Fig. 53). 

Epithelioma of the face in some individuals progresses so 
slowly that the patient will live for years, the tumor gradually 
eating away more and more of the skin and suffering in its own 
turn from ulcerative processes until possibly the skin of half the 
face is in this manner disintegrated. Such epithelioma is known 
as rodent ulcer. 





EPITHELIOMA 


95 


Diagnosis. —The appearance of a well-developed epithelioma 
is characteristic. First there is the very hard infiltration of the 
skin with the cancer cells. This raises the level of the skin affected 
above that of the normal surrounding skin. The blood-vessels in 
the skin involved, and in that adjacent to the new growth, are often 
dilated. As induration extends, the blood-supply may he shut off 
from the older portions of the growth and ulceration result. The 
discharge from the surface of such an ulcer often has a gangrenous 
odor. The regional lymph-glands may he swollen and hard. This 
may he the result of metastasis or of the absorption of septic prod¬ 
ucts if an ulcer exists. As a diagnostic sign of cancer it has tliere- 



Fig. 52.— Epithelioma of the Nose, Recently Growing Rapidly. Diagnosis 
merely clinical, as the patient would not permit removal of the tumor. 

fore a greater valu'e when the skin is unbroken than it has after 
an ulcer forms. The late diagnosis is of little value to the patient. 

The early diagnosis is life-saving. 

A beginning epithelioma may be mistaken for a wart or papil¬ 
loma (Fig. 54). If there is any doubt a microscopic examination 






Fig. 53. —Epithelioma of the Cheek, Existing Two Years in a Man Aged 

Seventy-Two. 



iiG. 54. Epithelioma of Face; Supposed Wart Snipped off Five Weeks before 
this Photograph was Taken. Compare Figure 36, page 77. 







EPITHELIOMA 


97 


should be made or the tumor should he removed. In fact, every 
such tumor which shows a tendency to grow, should be promptly 
excised. When this is done at an early stage, before the tumor 
begins to infiltrate the skin, it is unnecessary to sacrifice any of 
the surrounding skin, and no disfiguring scar follows. Hence a 
patient is more likely to submit to operation at this early stage, 
which is sometimes spoken of as the precancerous stage. Micro¬ 
scopical examination of the removed tissue will sometimes show 
that this term “ precancerous ” is not justified (see Figs. 57, 58, 
and 59, and the description of them on p. 98). 

Epithelioma of the Scalp. —The early appearance of epitheli¬ 
oma in the scalp is that of a slightly elevated irregular tumor, the 



Fig. 55. —Epithelioma of the Scalp Occurring in a Woman Aged Fifty-eight. 

surface of which is redder in places than the normal scalp, and 
which is partly covered by the crusts which are prone to form 
upon the scalp whenever it is irritated (big. 55). 

Illustrations showing different types of early epithelioma of 
the face have been given in the preceding pages. 

Epithelioma of the Lip. —One type of early epithelioma of the 
lip is shown in Figure 56, the ulcer of which was said to have ex¬ 
isted only four weeks. Another case in which ulceration was of the 







98 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 



Fig. 56. —Epithelioma of the Lip, said to be of 
Four Weeks' Duration. Patient aged forty- 
two years. 


most superficial character, although the tumor had lasted one year, 
is shown in Figure 60, page 101. This is a favorite seat for epithe¬ 
lioma. It often follows long-continued smoking of a clay pipe, 
arising at the point where the hot, rough stem of the pipe has 
rested upon the lower lip. It begins as a slight induration which 

the patient scarcely 
notices until little 
scales form upon the 
surface or a very shal¬ 
low ulceration pro¬ 
duces slight crusts. 
These from time to 
time are picked off or 
fall off, hut the ex¬ 
coriation fails to heal. 
In the meantime the 
induration spreads 
slightly or creeps into 
the deep tissues, but 
for many months, by reason of its limited extent and lack of pain, 
the patient may look upon the lesion as unimportant. 

Epithelioma of the Tongue.—Conditions leading to epithelioma 
of the tongue are shown in Figures 57, 58, and 59. Attention is 
especially called to the two types of lesion there shown—namely, 
the milky white patches of leucoplakia which had existed for sev¬ 
eral years, and the elevated, warty nodules which had existed for 
some months at least. In neither of these had the epithelial cells 
begun to grow downward at the time the drawing was made. All 
of the mature cancerous growth for which this tongue was removed 
came from an ulcer on its left margin, which does not show in this 
drawing. 

Another possibility of error in the early diagnosis of epithe¬ 
lioma of the face lies in mistaking for it the primary lesion of 
syphilis. As already pointed out (page 60) the primary sore 
upon the thick epithelial layer of the skin or even of the lips or 
tongue has quite a different appearance from the primary sore 
upon the more delicate epithelium of the head of the penis. 

Besides illustrating the early appearance of epithelioma of the 
tongue, Figures 5 < to 59 show how misleading the negative micro- 





Fig. 57.—Epithelioma of the Tongue, Showing Milky White Patches of Leuco- 

PLAKIA, AND PAPILLOMATOUS GROWTHS, ESPECIALLY IN THE MEDIAN LlNE OF THE 

Tongue. These were shown by microscopic examination to be not epithelioma, 
the only epithelioma being along the left border and in the center of the tongue. 


Fig. 58.—Longitudinal Section of Tongue in the Median Line, Showing Two 
Small “Islands” of Epithelioma in its Posterior Portion. Same subject 
as Fig. 57. 







100 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


scopic examination of small sections of tissue may be. Such sec¬ 
tions were twice removed from the center of this tongue, and were 
correctly pronounced to be not epitlieliomatous. A third section 
was then taken from the left lateral margin, and was found to pre¬ 
sent the usual appearances of epithelioma. 

Treatment. —The best treatment of a patient who has an epi¬ 
thelioma in an early stage is a complete removal of the tumor, 

together with a reasonable 
margin of healthy tissue on all 
sides of it and beneath it. 
Just how wide this margin 
should be cannot be stated by 
a general rule. If the tissue 
is lax and abundant, it is well 
to make the incision one-third 
of an inch away from the vis¬ 
ible edge of the tumor. If the 
surrounding skin is less flex¬ 
ible, or if the tumor is so situ¬ 
ated that a scar will be very 
prominent, one is perhaps justi¬ 
fied in removing a narrower 
zone of healthy tissue with the tumor. This is more likely to be 
the case if the growth of the tumor is almost wholly upward, and 
infiltration has not yet taken place. 

When the tumor has been removed, hemorrhage is controlled 
by pressure or ligation of vessels, and the surgeon must consider 
the best manner of covering the defect. In many cases the wound 
may be closed by direct suture if the surrounding skin is loosened 
from the deep fascia. In other cases a plastic operation, or skin 
grafting, or a combination of the two methods, will give the best 
results. 

The regional lymph-glands should be examined. If they are 
palpably enlarged the spaces in which they lie should be thor¬ 
oughly freed by dissection of glands and the connective tissue in 
which they lie. This requires general anesthesia. Some surgeons 
advocate it as a routine measure in all cases, whether the glands 
are palpable or not. In such an early stage of the disease as is 
shown in I igures 54 and 60, it hardly seems warrantable to add so 



Fig. 59.—Transverse Section of the 
Tongue through the Anterior “ Is¬ 
land ” of Epithelioma Shown in 
Fig. 58. It will be observed that the 
whole of this epithelial growth was 
from the lateral margin of the tongue. 






EPITHELIOMA 


101 


much to the risk of operation, when the prognosis is so good with¬ 
out the more extensive dissection. If the glands are palpably 
enlarged, prognosis is much more grave, hut is still sufficiently 
good to make a complete removal of glands and tumor desirable. 
Every tumor of the skin which is removed should he examined 
microscopically. 

The removal of epithelioma of the lower lip is accomplished 
as follows: The lower lip is shaved and cleansed thoroughly with 
soap and hot water. The teeth are brushed and the mouth rinsed 
with a dilute antiseptic. The lip is wiped with cotton wet with 
a stronger antiseptic solution. An assistant then seizes the lip at 
its right and left ends, between his thumb and fingers, standing 
behind the patient and putting the thumbs inside the patient’s 
mouth. This compresses the inferior coronary and inferior labial 
arteries and absolutely controls hemorrhage. The operator then 
injects from twenty to forty minims of a one per cent solution of 
cocain along the lines of incision, and cuts a Y-shaped section 



Fig. 60.— Epithelioma of Lower Lip. Duration one year. Patient ready for 

operation. 

from the lip, the incisions for the purpose (Fig. Gl) passing 
through the whole thickness of the lip. I hey start in the free 
border at least one-third of an inch from the visible margin of the 
growth. The Y should extend well down on the chin. Fins ic 
duces the amount of deformity as well as guards against recurrence. 
The wound is sutured with fine black silk (big* *>-)• ff the 
external stitches include all of the tissues except the mucous mem- 






102 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


brane, apposition will be so perfect that tlie mucous membrane 
need not be sutured. This saves a rather difficult extraction of 
sutures from within the mouth. A narrow strip of gauze should 



Fig. 61. —Epithelioma of Lower Lip, Showing the Line of Incisions. 

be placed over the wound and tension relieved by a strip of adhe¬ 
sive plaster from one side of the chin to the other. One-third of 
the lower lip may be removed with the certainty that no perma- 


Fig. 62. — Epithelioma of Lower Lip. After excision of the V-shaped piece, the 
gap in the lip is closed by sutures which need not penetrate the mucous membrane. 


nent deformity will result. If the tumor is situated very near the 
angle of the mouth, it may be necessary to extend the incision 
outward through the cheek to give greater freedom to the rem¬ 
nant of the lower lip. 









EPITHELIOMA 


103 


Epithelioma of the tongue may occur upon the dorsum of the 
tongue, or along the edge, or in the vicinity of the frenum. As the 
early removal of this tumor has a favorable prognosis, it is ex¬ 
tremely important that it should he recognized before the growth 
is extensive, and before the lymphatic glands in the neck have 
become involved. Unfortunately patients are indifferent to small 
sores upon the tongue until they give rise to considerable pain. 
The saliva soaks off any discharge, so that the sore has not the 
striking appearance of an epithelioma of the skin with its cover¬ 
ing of crusts. For this reason, most physicians fail to recognize 
epithelioma of the tongue as soon as they should do so. 

The disease first appears in one of three ways: There may be 
a white, wartlike growth, without ulceration, and with a scarcely 
noticeable induration at the base. Second, there may he a flat, 
slightly raised, smooth, red tumor which feels like a hit of gristle 
in the surface of the tongue. At a later stage this will ulcerate. 
Third, an old area of leucoplakia which possibly has existed for 
years will take on a malignant growth in some portion, showing 
distinct elevation, and then some induration at the base. This, 
too, will ulcerate later (Figs. 57—59). 

If an epithelioma of the tongue is recognized at an early stage, 
before ulceration sets in, the resection of the tumor with a safe 
zone of healthy tissue around it is a thoroughly safe operation. 
Some surgeons advocate the removal of the fascial tissue contain¬ 
ing lymph glands from the neck, although at this early stage the 
glands which are removed can rarely he demonstrated to contain 
cancer cells. If the disease is allowed to progress until ulceration 
has taken place, and there is marked infiltration of the tongue, 
and the lymphatic glands of the neck are palpably enlarged, re¬ 
moval of one-half, or even the whole, tongue, and an extensive dis¬ 
section in the neck gives slight hope of permanent cure. Radical 
cure, under such circumstances, is achieved in probably not more 
than twenty-five per cent of the cases. The indication is, there¬ 
fore, strongly in favor of early removal at a time when the opera¬ 
tion may be performed under cocain if necessary, and most of the 
tongue mav be preserved. On account of its free circulation and 
great flexibility the tongue is an excellent subject for plastic work. 

Methods of Treatment other than Excision .—Epithelioma of 
the face may be removed by chemical caustics or other agencies 


104 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 

capable of destroying tissue cells, such as the X-ray. That many 
cures have been effected by these means, every unprejudiced ob¬ 
server readily admits. They are generally considered to be less 
certain methods of removing the growth. They require a long 
period to effect their object, and evidence is lacking to show that 
recurrence is less likely to occur when a tumor has been destroyed 
by caustics than when it has been removed with a knife. Indeed, 
from what we know of the structure of the skin and of the nature 
of tumor growth, it is probable that recurrence is less likely when 
a zone of healthy tissue is removed with the tumor than when 
the tumor cells are killed in situ , so to speak. 

Methods other than excision are therefore to be adopted only 
when the patient refuses to allow the removal of the tumor by 
means of the knife. One of the best caustics to employ is a one 
per cent solution of arsenious acid in alcohol. A few drops of 
hydrochloric acid increase its solubility. This may be painted on 
with a camel’s-hair brush every second day. This is a cleaner 
method of application than the usual one of arsenic paste. 

In using the X-ray for the destruction of an epithelioma, the 
surrounding skin should be protected, and the length of exposure, 
distance from the tube, etc., should be carefully noted at each 
treatment. In beginning treatment it is well to err on the side 
of safety, so that the exposure should be brief, and three days 
should elapse between treatments. Later, when the full effects of 
the X-ray can be estimated, treatments may be increased in sever¬ 
ity and in frequency. The details of this form of treatment have 
been frequently published in magazines and monographs. 

Sarcoma. —Sarcoma of the head, while not very common, oc¬ 
curs with sufficient frequency to make the differential diagnosis be¬ 
tween it and benign growths of great importance. The diagnosis 
is often a difficult one in this region on account of the frequency 
here of sebaceous and dermoid cysts and of gummata and other 
inflammatory lesions. Two essential points shown by a malig¬ 
nant but not by a benign tumor, are the lack of a distinct bound¬ 
ary and the presence of enlarged blood-vessels in the vicinity of 
the tumor. Both of these signs were present in the case shown 
in Figure 63. This tumor had been growing rapidly for some 
months, but without pain or cerebral symptoms. It had been 
diagnosed as a sebaceous cyst by two doctors, and an immediate 


SARCOMA 


105 


office operation advised and 
a speedy cure promised. An¬ 
other doctor had affirmed that 
it was cancerous and that its 
removal would prove fatal. 
The surgeon in whose care 
the patient finally placed 
herself removed a section of 
the tumor for examination. 
1 pon learning that the tumor 
was not sarcoma, and having 
found it to be encapsulated, he 
later removed it without diffi¬ 
culty, hut with so great a loss 
of blood that the patient did 
not rally. It was extradural, 
but had eroded a circular area 
of the skull about two inches 
in diameter. The substance of 



Fig. 63.—Tumor of Head—Extradu¬ 
ral—Classified on Pathological 
Examination as an Aberrant Thy¬ 
roid. 


the tumor itself was on gross and microscopic examination like the 
tissue of a rapidly hypertropliyiiig thyroid gland. 



Fig. 64.—Angiosarcoma of the Lower Jaw of a Colored Girl, Aged Twenty- 
three. The tumor had been noticed for one month. 





106 


TUMORS AJSD DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 



Sarcoma of the face is far less common than epithelioma. 
Sometimes a small and apparently innocent tumor of the skin will 
prove upon microscopical examination to he sarcoma. 

Angiosarcoma of the jaw occurs, and has a marked diagnostic 
importance because in its early stages (Fig. 64) it may be mis¬ 
taken for the spongy condition of the gums due to scrofula. The 
history of the disease and the general condition of the patient will 
usually suffice for a correct diagnosis. In doubtful cases a micro¬ 
scopical examination of a fragment of the tumor should be made. 
Attention to the diet, and the use of an astringent mouth wash 
which will speedily improve scrofulous gums will, of course, have 
no effect upon the develojDment of a sarcoma. 

Parotid Tumors. —In the region of the angle of the jaw ma¬ 
lignant tumors of varied histological structure arise in connection 
with the parotid gland: carcinoma, sarcoma, chondroma, myxoma, 


Fig. 65.—Tumor of Parotid Gland, said to have Existed Ten or Twelve Years. 
1 lie skin was not attached, and the tumor was movable in all directions. 






CANCER OF TONSIL 


107 


and a combination in one tumor of the various structures which 
these names imply, may develop in this situation and give rise to 
a rounded, hard mass, usually composed of more than one lobule, 
which grows slowly or rapidly and often reaches the size of a small 
egg before the patient seeks surgical aid (Fig. 65). Such a tumor, 
like malignant tumors of a parenchymatous nature elsewhere in 
the body, is most often seen in middle life or later. If the condi¬ 
tions warrant it, no time should be lost after the diagnosis is made 
in accomplishing its thorough removal. As the tumor springs 
from the gland it is closely attached to it, but is movable with 
the gland upon the skin and deeper tissues. As it grows it infil¬ 
trates the surrounding tissues so that this mobility is soon lost. 
It may be distinguished from an inflammatory process by the his¬ 
tory of its slow development, by its hardness, and by its situation 
in the parotid. It is most likely to be confounded with tubercu¬ 
losis or syphilis of the cervical lymphatic glands. These are usu¬ 
ally situated below the angle of the jaw, but they may also extend 
above it. In affections of the lymphatic glands careful exami¬ 
nation will almost always show that two or more distinct glands are 
involved; whereas if a malignant tumor has nodules they can be 
shown to be connected, being invariably part of the same growth, 
except, of course, in case of secondary lymphatic involvement. 
Furthermore, tubercular and syphilitic glands which have attained 
any considerable size fall to pieces internally so that fluctuation 
can usually be made out in them. 

Cancer of Tonsil. —Tumors of the tonsil of a malignant 
character are on the border-line histologically between carcinoma 
and sarcoma. They may be easily mistaken for a chronic hyper¬ 
trophy of the tonsil, and if there is the slightest question a large 
section of the tumor should be taken for examination by a pathol¬ 
ogist. Even then the diagnosis may not be an absolute one, and 
the decision between the risk of allowing the tumor to remain and 
the risk of an operation for its radical removal is one of the most 
difficult in surgery. If a presumably hypertrophied tonsil is am¬ 
putated by means of the tonsillotome and subsequently recurs, 
this fact, even more than the result of histological examination, 
will incline the surgeon to perform a more radical operation for 
removal of the tumor. These tumors affect the deeper structures, 
and do not give rise to ulceration until a late stage is reached. 



108 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


Their treatment is beyond the range of minor surgery, but the 
subject is mentioned here on account of diagnostic importance. 


ACQUIRED DEFORMITIES 

Cicatrices. —Cicatricial contractions in the vicinity of the 
eye may so pull upon the lids as to cause their partial eversion or 
prevent the tears from flowing through the tear-duct in a natural 
manner. To relieve this iii certain cases plastic operations may 
be performed with more or less success, and even where the eyelid 
has been partially destroyed a substitute may be found in a flap 
of skin taken from the adjacent cheek. 

Cicatricial deformity of the lip from a burn of the neck is 
shown in Figure 87 on page 148. 

Nasal Deformities. —Deformities of the nose are among 
the commonest disfigurements. When hereditary syphilis attacks 
the nose of an infant or child, or contracted syphilis the nose 
of an adult, it often destroys the cartilage to such an extent 
that there is a hollowing out wdiere normally the bones and 
cartilage should be prominent. The result is often called a 
saddle-nose. 

Treatment. —Numerous attempts have been made to cure 
these deformities in later life by inserting some rigid substance to 
make good the lack of bony support. Any support which is fixed 
to the bones of the face will soon fail, because of the softening 
of the bones upon which it rests, and its removal will be necessary. 
A far better plan, therefore, when the tip of the nose is not de¬ 
stroyed, is to insert beneath the skin a boat-shaped piece of cellu¬ 
loid, the upper surface of which is straight or slightly rounded 
while the under surface is shaped to fit the sunken bridge of the 
nose. If the incision made at the side of the nose for the insertion 
of the celluloid is a small one and made obliquely through the skin, 
the resulting scar will be quite invisible. Necrosis of bone will not 
be produced as the periosteum is not disturbed. Before the cellu¬ 
loid is inserted, a bed is made for its reception by separating the 
skin from the cartilage with an appropriate instrument, a favorite 
one being made like a minute ax upon a very long handle. The 
bed should be so prepared that the celluloid may lie in it easily, 
and no attempt should be made to hold it in position by a bandage 




DEVIATION OF THE SEPTUM OF THE NOSE 


109 


or plaster. If the result is to be satisfactory, the support must rest 
easily in the cavity prepared for it. 

Deviation of the Septum of the Nose. —The septum of 
the nose may he deviated to one side, usually as a result of trau¬ 
matism. One air-passage may be closed thereby. 

Treatment. —A number of operations have been proposed to 
establish free passage of air through both nasal fossae. The sim¬ 
plest of all is to punch out a large opening in the septum at its 
most projecting point. The practical result of this is good, hut it 
is a permanent deformity, and as such has not appealed to the 
minds of either surgeons or patients. 

Of the many operations which have been devised to straighten 
the septum, two may he mentioned as comparatively simple in 
technic, and likely to yield a good result. A tongue-shaped flap 
of the whole thickness of the septum may he cut from the convex 
side. While it is still attached posteriorly, it should he pushed 



Fig. 66.—Diagram of the Septum of the Nose, Showing the Portion Necessary 
to Resect Submucously to Cure Deviation of the Septum. 

through the opening in the septum until it lies in the other nos¬ 
tril. A hollow rubber cone may be placed in the nostril to prevent 
the flap from resuming its original position until healing has taken 

place. . 

A newer method is submucous excision. Anesthesia and 

ischemia are produced by the surface application of cocam and 






110 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


adrenalin for twenty minutes or more. An incision is made on 
the convex side about a third of an inch posterior to the junction 
of skin and mucous membrane. This incision extends through the 
perichondrium. Through this incision the mucous membrane and 
perichondrium are peeled from the convex surface of the septum. 
The anterior incision is next carried through the cartilage of the 
septum, and the perichondrium is peeled from the concave sur¬ 
face of the septum. The denuded portion of cartilage is then ex¬ 
cised with a special knife and scissors. It is usually necessary to 
excise with a small chisel a portion of the nasal spine of the supe¬ 
rior maxilla, and a portion of the vomer (Fig. 66). In any event 
the resection should be continued until the septum hangs straight 
in the middle line. The incision is closed with two or three 
sutures. Ho after treatment is required; or a little gauze may 
be kept in each nostril for forty-eight hours. It is important to 
preserve both layers of perichondrium, so that a certain amount 
of rigidity may be retained, and in order to avoid subsequent per¬ 
foration of the septum through atrophy. 

Elongation of the Uvula. —A catarrh of the naso-pharynx 
sometimes leads to enlargement and elongation of the uvula. Such 
elongation is a common accompaniment of acute inflammation of 
the throat, and disappears as soon as the inflammation subsides. 
Ho treatment of the uvula itself is necessary in such cases. It is 
quite another matter when the uvula is chronically so elongated 
that its tip rests constantly on the base of the tongue or even 
reaches to the epiglottis, causing the patient to gag and cough, 
particularly when he lies upon his back. The possibility that a 
persistent dry cough is due solely to uvular irritation should be 
borne in mind.* 

Inspection of the throat will show at once whether the 
uvula is long enough to cause irritation. If acute inflamma¬ 
tion is present one should, of course, wait until this has passed 
over before condemning the uvula, as the elongation may be tem¬ 
porary. 

Treatment. —When a uvula is elongated and the cause of 
irritative symptoms, it should be shortened by appropriate treat¬ 
ment. This means first of all attention to the general conditions 
of health of which the relaxation of the uvula may be only one 
manifestation. Such general causes are indigestion or constipa- 


ELONGATION OF THE UVULA 


111 


tion, too much tobacco or alcohol, over-exertion, bad air at work 
or during sleep, breathing through the mouth, etc. 

Astringent gargles and sprays, or the application directly to 
the uvula of stronger preparations than the patient should handle 
himself, will sometimes result in a cure. Tannic acid, alum, and 
the salts of silver are remedies worth trying. 

If local remedies and attention to the general health fail to 
shorten the uvula sufficiently to cause the disappearance of symp- 



Fig. 67. —Scissors for Amputation of the Uvula. 


toms, a portion of the little organ should be removed. Ibis opera¬ 
tion is a simple one, but it is desirable that the excision should be 
exact, since the removal of too much or too little may subject the. 
operator to a good deal of criticism, especially if some symptoms 
persist. The uvula should he anesthetized by the application of 
one per cent cocain on a cotton swab to its anterior and posterior 






112 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


surfaces. The tip of the uvula should then he seized with mouse- 
tooth forceps and drawn somewhat forward. A sufficient part of 
the organ is then to he cut away with curved scissors. The part 
removed should extend higher posteriorly than in front. By this 
means the blunt appearance of the uvula is avoided, and the 
wound is placed on the posterior surface and so is less affected by 
swallowing. Unless the uvula is held by forceps during the section 
it is likely to slip from the scissors. A special instrument has been 
made for the purpose which combines the action of the forceps 
and scissors. It is called an uvula scissors (Fig. 67). If hemor¬ 
rhage follows, it is readily controlled by pressure with a swab wet 
with a solution of adrenalin, or peroxid of hydrogen, or one of 
the other styptics. 

No after-treatment is required other than the use of iced Do¬ 
bell’s solution as a gargle, or some similar alkaline solution, and 
the avoidance of coarse or seasoned articles of diet for a few days. 

CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES 

Harelip and Cleft Palate are common congenital deformi¬ 
ties. There may be either one or two clefts of the lip and anterior 
portion of the mouth, hut the posterior portion of the hard palate 
and the soft palate develop from right and left halves, so that a 
cleft due to imperfect development is invariably single. If the 
harelip is double its central portion is connected with the inter¬ 
maxillary hone and is attached to the septum of the nose. This 
deformity may he so extreme that even a successful operation pro¬ 
duces a most unsatisfactory result. The opening may he closed, 
but the scar and disfigurement which persist are most unsightly. 
If, on the other hand, the development of tissue both of the central 
portion and margins of the clefts has been abundant, it is possible 
to produce something like a normal appearance, even though the 
clefts open into the anterior nares. If the cleft is unilateral and 
exists in the lip only (Fig. 68), a perfect result may be obtained, 
so that it is scarcely possible in after-years to perceive that a hare¬ 
lip existed. The time for operation has been the occasion of much 
dispute among surgeons, but it is now pretty generally admitted 
that a cleft palate should not be operated upon until the child is 
six or eight years old, whereas a better result is obtained if a 


HARELIP AND CLEFT PALATE 


113 


harelip is operated upon in early infancy, say from the third to 
the sixth month, or even earlier if the cleft in the lip interferes 
with the proper nutrition of the child or causes deviation of the 
nasal septum (Fig. 69). Sometimes, when the child cannot nurse 
from the breast it may take milk from the bottle, or, if not, life 
may still be preserved by pouring milk into its mouth from a 



Fig. 68.—Harelip, the Cleft not En¬ 
tering the Nostril. The vermilion 
of the lip extends into the cleft, but is 
much narrower there. 



Fig. 69.—Harelip, the Cleft Entering 
the Nostril. Note the deviation of 
the septum, even in this comparatively 
simple case. 


teaspoon, or the feeding may he accomplished by the passage of a 
soft rubber catheter into the esophagus. 

Treatment. —In operating for harelip it is of the first im¬ 
portance that the vermilion border be accurately approximated, 
and, secondly, that a slight excess of tissue at the suture-line be 
provided; otherwise the contraction which follows in every scar 
will draw the lip upward at the line of suture and a slight notch 
will result. To overcome this, it has been found best to make an 
oblique incision through the vermilion portion of the lip and to 
leave a little fulness at this point. If the power of contraction 
is overestimated it is very easy to reduce this excess at a latei 
period of life. The edges of the clett must be pared so that they 
shall be even, and enough tissue must be removed to make the 
edges to be sutured equal in thickness to the rest oi the lip. 

The suturing is very important. Fine black silk is the best 
material for the purpose. There may be a number of stitches 






114 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


which approximate separately the mucous membrane and the skin. 
Or fewer stitches may he employed and passed through the whole 
thickness, or nearly the whole thickness, of the lip. In any case 
the strain should he evenly distributed upon the stitches. Some 
operators employ one or two additional stitches set w 7 ell back from 
the wound, in order to take the strain off the suture-line. This 
can, however, he accomplished with less disfigurement by placing 
a narrow strip of strong gauze, such as bolting silk, across the lip 
from cheek to cheek, fastening its ends to the cheeks by collodion. 
Another method is to carry two strips of adhesive plaster from the 
cheeks to the forehead. These two strips make an X, crossing over 
the bridge of the nose, and fully relieve tension upon the upper lip. 

The stitches should be removed as early as possible, say in 
three or five days, in order to avoid a prominent scar, but the strain 
on the lip must be prevented for a longer period by one of the 
methods mentioned. In infants operation for simple harelip may 
be done without any anesthetic, or with a very little chloroform. 

Cleft of the Lower Lip. —A rare deformity, and one which is 
always single in the median line, is the cleft of the lower lip (Fig, 



Fig. 70. —Congenital Cleft of Lower Lip. 


iO). It is easily cured by a V-shaped excision of tire cleft fol¬ 
lowed by suture (p. 101). 

Treatment for Cleft Palate.— If the cleft in the palate 
involves only the soft palate, the operation for its relief is verv 


I 



TONGUE-TIE 


115 


simple. It consists in paring the edges of the cleft and carefully 
approximating them with many fine black silk sutures. If the 
cleft extends also into the bony portion and is not too wide, it 
may be closed by suture of the mucous membrane alone. To make 
this possible, however, it is necessary to make preliminary inci¬ 
sions about half an inch from the cleft on either side and separate 
the strips of mucous membrane from the hard palate. These two 
strips, right and left, may then be sutured in the middle without 
great tension. 

To close a larger cleft a strip of bone and mucous membrane 
may be chiseled from either side and sutured together in the mid¬ 
dle. If this operation is successful, two small clefts remain which 
can be closed by subsequent operation. The details of these opera¬ 
tions will be found in books on major surgery. Complete anes¬ 
thesia is necessary. 

If it is decided to wait some years before operating for cleft 
palate, a plate of rubber should be fitted and worn. This can be 
done as soon as the child has double teeth to which the plate can 
be fastened—generally at two years of age. Such a plate facili¬ 
tates swallowing and is a great help to the child in its efforts to 
talk. 

Thick Lips. —Persons with very thick lips sometimes become 
dissatisfied with their appearance and seek surgical aid. An im¬ 
provement can be accomplished by the removal of an elliptical 
shaped piece, the incisions for which should lie fully within the 
vermilion portion of the lip and should run on either side to a 
very fine point, in order to produce a smooth appearance. 

Tongue-tie. —Parents often think their child’s tongue is tied 
if he does not learn to talk as soon as the average child. If the 
frenum of the tongue is very short, it will pull upon the tip of the 
tongue and produce a cleft in the tip when an attempt is made to 
extend the tongue. Even less marked shortening may have an 
effect upon the pronunciation of certain words, favoring bad habits 
of speech, or possibly subjecting the child to ridicule. Therefore, if 
this deformity exists even to a moderate degree, the tongue should 
be lifted and the frenum snipped with scissors. The reverse end of 
a grooved director, is often made with a notch for this purpose. 
Backwardness in acquiring speech is generally dependent on other 

causes; but the extra attention given to an older child’s efforts to 

10 



116 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE HEAD 


speak, following this operation, sometimes leads to an improvement 
which is quite astonishing. 

Deformities of tlie Ear. —The lobe of the ear may he cleft, 
giving the appearance shown in Figure 71. A much commoner 
deformity is a reduplication of some portion of the auricle, an 
extreme degree of which is shown in Figure 72. These supple- 



Fig. 71 . —Congenital Cleft of Lobe Fig. 72 . —Congenital Deformity of 

of Auricle. Ear. 



mentary knobs of cartilage may or may not he closely attached to 
the normal cartilage. Sinuses in front of the tragus are spoken of 
on page 76. 

Many of the deformities of the auricle may he perfectly reme¬ 
died by a well-planned plastic operation. In closing a cleft, con¬ 
genital or acquired, it is well to remember that the essential tissue 
to be sutured is the cartilage. When the incisions have been made 
in such a way that the edges of the cartilage come easily together, 
there will be no trouble in suturing the skin. The first step is to 
reflect the skin from the perichondrium on all sides for a short 
distance, but'not to cut away any skin until the deep sutures have 
been inserted in the cartilage. Pieces of adhesive plaster affixed to 
the ear on either side of the wound, and laced or sewed together, will 
relieve tension of the sutures. 









SECTION II 


AFFECTIONS OF THE NECK 


CHAPTER IV 

INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 

Contusions. —Contusions of the neck, if serious, are so be¬ 
cause of the injury to the deeper structures. They are usually the 
result of accidental or attempted strangling. The skin of the neck 
is tough and freely movable, and if it is pressed against any un¬ 
derlying bone, it may escape injury, even though some deeper 
structure such as the hyoid bone or larynx be broken. An example 
of this is seen in cases of wheel injury. The wheel of a vehicle, 
especially if rubber-tired, may pass over the neck and even break 
one or more of the vertebra} without leaving any mark externally. 

Foreign Bodies. —A foreign body, such as a morsel of food 
or some harder substance, may lodge in the larynx, trachea, or 
esophagus. (For foreign bodies in mouth and pharynx see page 
12.) The symptoms vary all the way from a slight irritation 
and discomfort on swallowing, to complete strangulation and in¬ 
tense pain, depending on the shape and characteristics of the for¬ 
eign body and the particular position which it occupies. 

Treatment. —Even when the symptoms are not alarming the 
foreign body should be removed as promptly as possible, in order 
to save the patient from the inflammation which is likely to follow 
its presence, and which may by its swelling completely occlude 
the air-passages. The patient’s efforts—coughing, gagging, and 
vomiting—may expel the foreign body, or it may be extracted by 
a finger passed well down the throat. If these simpler means do 
not suffice, the pharynx and larynx should be inspected with a 
laryngeal mirror in a good light, and the foreign body extracted 
with forceps. If the patient lies on his back, with the head lower 

than the shoulders, extraction is facilitated. A child may be 

117 




118 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 

turned upside down in an effort to shake out the foreign body, hut 
only for a few moments. If respiration is seriously interfered 
with and does not improve, tracheotomy is indicated (p. 119). 

If the foreign body has entered the esophagus, it is likely to 
be arrested by the projection of the cricoid cartilage. In this case 
it may still be extracted by forceps introduced through the mouth. 
If it is of such a nature that it is safe to allow it to enter the 
stomach, the patient should try to crowd it forward by swallowing 
pultaceous material, such as well chewed bread. If the foreign 
body passes the cricoid it may be arrested at the cardiac orifice of 
the stomach. This has happened a number of times when artificial 
teeth have been swallowed. This condition will usually require a 
gastrotomy. Time may be taken for this, however, as the imme¬ 
diate distress ends with the passage of the foreign body to the 
lower portion of the esophagus. 

If the foreign body is in the trachea or still lower in one of 
the bronchi, it may be extracted through the natural passages 
through an opening made in the trachea (tracheotomy, see p. 119), 
or through an opening made directly into the bronchus. This last 
will, of course, not be attempted unless the body has been exactly 
located by means of the X-ray. It will always remain one of the 
rare major operations, the details of which need not be here dis¬ 
cussed. After the foreign body has been removed, the patient 
should gargle with normal saline solution, or use an alkaline throat 
spray (Dobell’s solution, glycothymolin, etc.). 

Wounds. —Wounds of the neck, especially stab-wounds, are 
relatively common. Their interest, too, centers in the injury to 
the deep structures which may coexist. The jugular vein may be 
opened by a stab-wound or by a cut, as with a razor. Edema of 
the lax tissues may speedily become distressing. Death from hem¬ 
orrhage is easily possible. Attempts at suicide with a razor often 
extend no deeper than the jugular vein, although there are in¬ 
stances in which an individual has succeeded in dividing most of 
the structures of the neck as far back as the vertebra?. A cut, even 
though much less extensive, may open the air-passages, usually 
between the hyoid bone and the thyroid cartilage. 

Treatment. —Experience has shown that an incised vein may 
be sutured and its continuity restored, but it is scarcely worth 
while to attempt this with the external jugular, as interruption of 


\ 


WOUNDS 


119 


its blood current has no significance. In general the decision 
should be to ligate all the large vessels, to suture with catgut any 
opening into the air-passages, and to provide for the subsequent 
performance of tracheotomy should the breathing become difficult 
through swelling of the larynx. These steps may all be performed 
under the influence of a local anesthetic unless the patient, very 
likely insane, refuses to remain quiet. 

It is better not to trust to pressure to control hemorrhage ex¬ 
cept in the most superficial wounds. Pressure may stop the flow of 
blood at the surface, while allowing it to continue in the deeper 
planes of tissue. This is especially true in the case of irregular 
or punctured wounds, which should be immediately explored to 
their depths, even though it is necessary to enlarge the wound in 
the skin. Veins as well as arteries should be ligated with fine 
catgut. 

Wounds of the Esophagus.—A stab-wound of the neck, without 
giving rise to serious symptoms, may penetrate the esophagus. 
Under such circumstances there will be a slight mucous discharge 
to which may be added milk, water, etc., when the patient swal¬ 
lows these fluids. Such a wound, if it has good drainage, will 
generally close spontaneously in the course of two or three weeks; 
but one should be on his guard against infiltration of the deeper 
tissues or a burrowing of pus and food along some fascial plane. 
If necessary the external wound must be enlarged to afford free 
drainage. 

If the opening into the esophagus cannot be satisfactorily 
sutured, a soft rubber tube should be passed into the lower por¬ 
tion, through which the patient can be fed temporarily until the 
wound has time to close by granulation, or permanently, if the loss 
of the wall of the esophagus is permanent. 

Tracheotomy.—Tracheotomy performed upon a normal adult 
is a simple operation. A vertical incision is made in the median 
line from the cricoid cartilage downward for a distance of an 
inch or more. This wound is deepened until the surface of the 
trachea has been bared in the median line for about an inch. A 
scalpel is then passed through the anterior wall of the trachea. 
The sides of the incision are separated by means of sharp hooks 
or an especially devised dilator, and the tracheotomy tube is in¬ 
serted. The whole procedure may be performed without an assist- 



120 


INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 


ant, and in case of need an opening has been made with a jack¬ 
knife and death from strangulation thus averted. In an infant 
struggling for air and violently moving its larynx up and down, 
the operation is far more difficult. The principles are the same, 
but the neck is so short that exposure of the trachea for a sufficient 
distance and its division in the median line are by no means easy. 
In adults, under circumstances in which an emergency opera¬ 
tion is necessary, the distance from the skin to the trachea is often 
greatly increased by edema, extravasation of blood, and venous 
congestion. 

The instruments which are essential for this operation are a 
dissecting and mouse-tooth forceps, scalpel, scissors, artery clamps, 
small sharp and blunt retractors, a curved dressing forceps or 
a specially constructed tracheal dilator, and a tracheotomy tube 
(Fig. 73). The patient lies upon his back with the neck fully 
extended over a hard pillow or sandbag. An incision is made in 
the median line from the cricoid cartilage downward for an inch 
and a half. Veins as they appear should be divided between 
clamps, or clamped as they are cut, until the trachea is reached. 
The isthmus of the thyroid should be drawn upward. If time per¬ 
mits, all hemorrhage should be controlled before the trachea is 
opened. This is done by a median vertical incision for a distance 
of three-quarters of an inch. The walls of the trachea are held 
apart by two narrow blunt retractors or by the tracheal dilator. 
Mucus or a possible foreign body is sponged away or removed by 
means of a curved dressing forceps, and the tracheotomy tube is 
inserted. The wound in the soft parts, if unnecessarily large, 
should be partly closed by suture. A flat collar of gauze, impreg¬ 
nated with some antiseptic, should be placed between the shield 
of the tube and the wound, while the tube itself is held in position 
by two tapes tied at the back of the neck. A moist sponge should 
be kept over the mouth of the tube i^ order to keep the inhaled 
air warm and moist. 

Upon, the care of a tracheotomy tube depends in no small meas¬ 
ure the early cure of the patient. Mucus may be removed from 
the tube by a small wisp of wet cotton on a bent probe. If the 
tube is a single one, it should be removed and cleaned at least once 
a day. The wound should be frequently cleansed. Only the mild¬ 
est antiseptics are permissible in such a situation. A double tube, 



Fig. 73.— Instruments Used for Tracheotomy. A, scalpel; B, curved scissors; C, forceps; D, probe; E, hooked 
retractors; F, artery clamps; G, blunt retractors; H , tracheal dilator; I, tracheotomy tube. The blunt retractors G 
are not needed if one has the tracheal dilator H. 





122 


INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 


while leaving less space for the air, has the advantage that the 
inner tube can be removed at any time without disturbing the 
wound, and it can always he replaced without difficulty. Tubes 
are also made in such a manner that either the outer or inner tube 
can be removed and replaced without disturbing the other. Thus 
the tube left in place acts as a guide for the insertion of the 
other. 

Intubation.—This little operation consists in the introduc¬ 
tion into the larynx of a rigid tube so as to permit respiration to 
go on in spite of swelling, or an accumulation of mucus or mem¬ 
brane, which might close the glottis. It is chiefly performed in 
cases of diphtheria. With the ingenious instrument devised by 
O’Dwyer, the introduction of the tube is comparatively simple. 
The patient is held firmly in an upright position, the mouth gag 
is inserted, and the forefinger of one hand is passed into the throat 
until the tip of the epiglottis can be felt. With this finger as a 
guide, the tube is passed into the larynx. The instrument with 
which the tube was introduced is then released and withdrawn, 
the finger holding the tube in position meanwhile. As a precau¬ 
tion against mishaps, the tube may be threaded on a long loop, 
and the thread removed only when the operator is sure the tube is 
in position. 

In removing the tube, the patient is again placed in an upright 
position, the mouth gag is inserted, and the forefinger passed into 
the throat until the tube can be felt. It acts as a guide to the 
extracting instrument. The withdrawal of the tube is more diffi¬ 
cult than its insertion, so that if a tube is inserted merely as a 
temporary measure, it is well to leave the loop of thread in posi¬ 
tion to facilitate extraction. If this is done the loop may be fas¬ 
tened over the patient’s ear. 

Sprain of the Cervical Spine. —The lower portion of the 
spine is more often the seat of sprain than is the upper portion. 
This may be due to the greater flexibility of the cervical spine. 
However, sprain of the neck is by no means uncommon. It may 
follow falls or blows of various sorts. 

The symptoms are pain and tenderness, especially when certain 
movements are made, against which the patient often protects him¬ 
self by muscular contraction. External signs, such as edema and 
ecchymosis, are usually wanting. There is no true deformity, al- 


FRACTURES 


123 


though the patient for his own comfort may keep the head out 
of the median line. Thus an injury of this sort, if not properly 
treated, may lead to wryneck. Symptoms of shock may he pres¬ 
ent, but are usually wanting in cases of simple sprain. 

Diagnosis. —The essential point in the diagnosis is not to over¬ 
look a more serious injury, such as fracture, or injury of the cord, 
received at the time of accident, or due to pressure of the hema¬ 
toma. Hence the patient should he carefully examined, the ex¬ 
tent of the various normal motions of the neck tested and recorded 
(for the method see p. 162), possible paralysis, either sensory or 
motor, investigated, and any other symptoms noted. This is the 
more important in cases of spinal injury, out of which damage 
suits may arise. 

The possibility that a dislocation has occurred and has been 
spontaneously reduced should also be borne in mind. The chief 
significance of this is the damage to the cord which may have 
occurred through undue pressure. Another possibility to be 
thought of is commencing tuberculosis. 

Treatment, —Treatment consists in rest in a correct position, 
with hot or cold applications to relieve pain. Later, massage and 
passive and active motions should be instituted in order to regain 
the full range of motion. If the patient has a tendency to hold 
the head in an abnormal attitude, this should be corrected, even 
though it is necessary to give an anesthetic and to apply a plaster 
of Paris bandage to the head, neck, and chest. This should not 
be continued very long, lest stiffness result. It is therefore better 
to remove it in a week, and to begin treatment by manipulation. 

Fractures.—Fracture of the Hyoid.—Attempts at strangula¬ 
tion may cause fracture of the hyoid bone. The usual symptoms 
of fracture, pain on motion, swelling, and ecchymosis, are present 
but may be rather slight. In case of the hyoid bone, crepitus will 
probably be obtainable. To these ordinary symptoms there may 
be added pain on swallowing, or cough, or swelling of the larynx 
so great that tracheotomy becomes necessary. If no displacement 
is present, the parts will unite without treatment. If there is 
displacement, it is better to make an incision and suture the 
fractured cartilage or bone with catgut, so as to avoid deformity. 
No apparatus is required to hold the fractured ends in normal 
position if there is no tendency to displacement, but a few strips 



124 


INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 


of adhesive plaster or immobilization of the head will give the 
patient comfort. 

Fracture of the Larynx.— In fractures of the larynx the thyroid 
cartilage is usually involved; the fracture may or may not he 
complete. As the mucous membrane of the larynx is often rup¬ 
tured, blood flows into the trachea and excites a most painful 
cough. Swallowing and talking are also painful. The thyroid 
is flattened; there is marked edema, and frequently emphysema. 
If the fracture is complete, crepitus is easily obtained. 

This is a very dangerous injury, statistics showing that more 
than one-third of the patients who suffer from it die. As death 
usually comes during an attack of dyspnea, tracheotomy should be 
immediately performed, except possibly in simple cases when the 
patient is so situated that tracheotomy can be performed at a 
moment’s notice. Subsequent treatment should be directed toward 
keeping the fracture aseptic, controlling hemorrhage, and prevent¬ 
ing stenosis. To accomplish these measures it is often necessary 
to perform laryngotomy. 

Fracture of the Trachea.—This injury occurs less often than 
fracture of the larynx. The symptoms in general are similar. 
Dyspnea and emphysema are the most alarming ones, and are fre¬ 
quently the cause of death; or death may follow at a later period 
from inhalation pneumonia. 

The treatment is similar to that recommended for fracture of 
the larynx. If there is no dyspnea and no emphysema, trache¬ 
otomy may be deferred, but the patient should be kept under strict 
observation for several days. 

Fracture of the Cervical Spine.—Fracture of the cervical ver¬ 
tebrae may be due to direct violence, but it is generally the result 
of blows or falls upon the head. It is not necessarily fatal, but is 
often accompanied by injury of the cord sufficient to terminate 
life either immediately or after the lapse of a few weeks. The 
symptoms are the usual ones of fracture, namely, pain on pres¬ 
sure and on manipulation, abnormal mobility and crepitus, pos¬ 
sibly swelling and eccliymosis. Some of these symptoms may be 
masked by the numerous strong muscles which surround the ver¬ 
tebrae, and which are kept contracted to prevent the pain due to 
motion of the neck. 

The cord is usually injured, either pressed upon, or partly or 




CELLULITIS AND ERYSIPELAS 


125 


wholly crushed. There is, therefore, almost always more or less 
paralysis, sensory or motor, or both. 

Prognosis, on account of the injury to the cord, is bad, worse 
than when the lumbar spine is fractured. 

Treatment. —If no cord symptoms are present, treatment con¬ 
sists in the immobilization of the spine, possibly with extension 
and counterextension. If there is a partial or complete paralysis, 
the spinal canal should be opened posteriorly (laminectomy), and 
depressed fragments of bone or compressing blood-clots removed. 
Unfortunately the paralysis is usually due to crushing of the cord 
at the time of the accident, and not to pressure. Hence it is only 
occasionally that an operation benefits the patient. 

Dislocation of Vertebrae. —This injury may be due either 
to direct violence or to a fall. If the dislocation is complete, it is 
often found to be associated with fracture and to have produced 
fatal lesions of the cord. There are instances, however, in which 
dislocation is only partial and in which the cord escapes serious in¬ 
jury. This is especially true when a partial dislocation takes 
place between the axis and atlas. Such a patient may escape 
paralytic symptoms and may live with the dislocation unreduced. 

Treatment. —If the head and body are pulled strongly apart 
and the neck is manipulated, the dislocation may be reduced. 
This procedure is not without risk of sudden death. It should 
be performed with the greatest steadiness and gentleness, prefer¬ 
ably under an anesthetic. Otherwise the treatment consists in 
immobilization of the neck, followed by massage and manipula¬ 
tions (compare the treatment for Sprain, page 123). 

INFLAMMATIONS 

Burns. —The neck is often the seat of severe burns, especially 
when the clothing catches fire. Such burns, if deep, are likely 
to result in deforming contractures, even to the extent of draw¬ 
ing the chin down upon the chest (Uig. 87, p. 148). Uor the 
treatment of burns see page 26. Contraction should be prevented 
by keeping the burned area extended during healing by means of 
a plaster of Paris splint fitted to the opposite side of the neck. 

Cellulitis and Erysipelas. —Superficial cellulitis and ery¬ 
sipelas occurring in the neck present no peculiar features. Por 


126 


INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 


description and treatment of these disorders see pages 33 
and 35. 

Boil. —The back of the neck is a favorite seat for boils. A 
furuncle or boil is a local suppuration due to staphylococci. The 
inflammation begins in the skin usually at the root of a hair. 
There is a purulent center, surrounded by a red, edematous area. 
The swelling and pain vary. Sometimes the inflammation is so 
intense that necrosis of the deeper portion of the skin takes place. 
This necrotic slough is called the “ core ” of the boil. If the 
boil forms where the skin is delicate, the pus very soon breaks 
through to the surface. In the hack of the neck, where the skin 
is often a quarter of an inch thick, it is sometimes several days 
before the necrotic center of the boil, popularly called the core, 
becomes softened and separated from the surrounding skin, so that 
the contents of the boil are able to discharge themselves spon¬ 
taneously; and sometimes, instead of discharging on the surface, 
the pus finds its way into the subcutaneous fatty tissue, forming 
an abscess there. A boil does not tend to spread beyond its 
immediate vicinity, and after its discharge it usually goes on to 
recovery without giving rise to other than a local cellulitis. The 
process, however, is apt to he repeated, often many times, in the 
vicinity of the first lesion, each new boil developing separately as 
if it were the only one, from infection through the hair-follicles, 
due to the smearing of pus on the surface. 

Treatment. —The best treatment is to evacuate the abnormal 
products already formed and to hasten or cut short the patho¬ 
logical process. At the back of the neck the skin is thick and the 
inflamed area is proportionately great, so that the introduction 
of a drop of carbolic acid will not usually stop the infection, as it 
often will in case of a small boil of the face (p. 36). Most sur¬ 
geons still follow the domestic plan of poulticing such a lesion for 
a couple of days until there is a well marked center to the suppura¬ 
tion. This poultice treatment is generally continued too long. To 
keep up the poultices until there is simply a soft pus-sac to be 
opened simplifies the operation, but it prolongs unnecessarily the 
sufferings of the patient, and by increasing the size of the cavity, 
which has to be closed in healing, it delays ultimate recovery. In 
most instances, as early as the second day, it is possible to say 
where the center of the boil is located, and if a short incision 


CARBUNCLE 


127 


is made clear through the skin at this point and a wet dressing 
is applied, not only will the patient be saved one or more days 
of intense suffering, but the inflammatory process will rapidly 
subside and there will he very little necrosis of the skin to he 
made good by the growth of the new tissue. Any violent attempts 
at curetting or squeezing out the necrotic tissue or pathological 
products are to he condemned, as these substances will come out 
of themselves in a few hours, while the violence adds somewhat 
to the sum total of injured tissue and may set up a severe cellu¬ 
litis. A strip of rubber tissue or gauze should be inserted to favor 
the escape of pus. 

An injection of cocain or eucain directly into the inflamed 
skin over a boil is a very painful proceeding. It is therefore bet¬ 
ter to begin the anesthetization at a little distance from the in¬ 
flamed area, so that as new punctures are made nearer the center 
they shall enter tissue in which sensation has been benumbed. It 
is in operations of this character that a freezing spray of ethyl 
chlorid proves satisfactory. For other details of treatment see 
Chapter XXIII. 

The after-treatment of a boil is simple. The wet dressings 
should he continued for a couple of days, until the discharge is at 
a minimum, when an ointment, such as balsam of Peru, one 
part, vaseline, eight parts, may be substituted. 

The advantages of the poultice may be obtained without its 
disadvantages by applying heat to the outside of the wet dress¬ 
ing. For this purpose a hot-water bag or bottle, or a hot brick 
or flat-iron, may be used. It is easy to produce and maintain as 
high a temperature as the patient can stand, by changing the 
bottle as soon as its temperature falls. In this manner the gradual 
cooling of the poultice and discomfort and trouble of its renewal 

are avoided. 

Carbuncle. —A carbuncle is a suppuration which, unlike that 
of a boil, has a tendency to spread laterally through the cutane¬ 
ous tissues. Focal abscesses are formed in the 'saiious hail-folli¬ 
cles, and the interstices of the skm become saturated with pus, and 
there is an extensive cellulitis with necrosis of more or less of 
the true skin, besides the usual symptoms of infection (Fig. 74). 
A carbuncle also extends downward, and the subcutaneous fat is 
usually involved in all except very mild cases, i rom this brief 


128 


INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 


description it appears that an extensive carbuncle is a serious 
trouble which not infrequently terminates fatally. 

Treatment. —It is important that incisions should be made 
through the skin before the process has extended widely. As 
many as possible of the small abscesses should he opened by the 
incisions, which may he made af intervals of one-fourth or one' 


Fig. 74. Carbuncle of Neck. Note the flat top, and several points oi 

suppuration. 

third of an inch, both vertically and horizontally; or they may 
radiate from a central point (Fig. 75). Some few surgeons ad¬ 
vocate the complete excision of a carbuncle, hut this causes the 
loss of an unnecessary amount of tissue. A compress wet with 
a strong antiseptic solution should he applied and kept hot in 
the manner described above. It may he necessary on the follow¬ 
ing day or at a later period to make other incisions to permit the 
escape of newly formed collections of pus. Figure 76 shows the 
outcome of a very bad case. 








Fig. 75.—Carbuncle of Neck. Duration, four weeks; incised three times, gangrene 
of one flap. Scar from similar operation for carbuncle twenty years previous. 
Patient aged fifty-two years. 



7ig. 76-—Same Patient as Shown in Fig. 75, but Eleven Weeks Later. 









130 


INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 


Abscess. —Abscesses may also form in the neck as the result 
of infection in some other situation. This is notably the case in 
neglected children, who scratch their heads to find relief from the 
itching set up by pediculi. The epidermis is broken, a slight 
cellulitis results in the scalp, and the infection follows the lym¬ 
phatics to a cervical gland and produces an abscess in the neck 
(Fig. 77). It is usually possible to find the starting-point of 
the infection under such circumstances. Such an abscess is 
wholly subcutaneous and is not possessed of the virulence either 
of the boil or the carbuncle. It should he opened and treated 
according to the plan laid down for abscesses of the scalp (p. 34). 



Fig. 77. Abscesses of Neck. Duration two weeks, secondary to pediculosis capitis, 

occurring in a child of two years. 

The pediculi should be removed to prevent recurrence of the 
trouble. Applications of benzin, or kerosene, or tincture of 
delphinium and ether, followed by a shampoo, will accomplish this. 

Deep suppuration of the neck, due presumably to infection 
from the mouth, sometimes develops rapidly. In a day or two 






ABSCESS 


131 


tiie whole front or side of the neck may he swollen, brawny, 
and, later, saturated with pus, while chills and fever show the 
gravity of the affection. This trouble has often been called 
angina Ludovici. It deserves early radical treatment or it may 



Fig. 78.— Abscess Under Sternomastoid Muscle. Six months’ duration; 
probably tubercular. Patient aged fifty-six years. 


speedily lead to a fatal termination. The tension should be re¬ 
lieved by incisions sufficiently numerous and deep to open any 
pockets of pus and allow the escape of the greater part of the 
exuded fluid. If operation is delayed until the whole front of the 
neck is involved, the prognosis is decidedly unfavorable. 

A slowly forming deep abscess of the neck may be due to 
breaking down of a tuberculous gland (Fig. 78), or to a mixed 
infection in case of syphilitic ulcerated throat. Abscess of thfe 
cervical lynrpliatic glands secondary to alveolar abscess, is spoken 

of on page 42. 

11 




132 


INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 



Anthrax. —Anthrax or malignant pustule is a disease not 
common in this country. It usually develops in a man who has 
been handling infected hides. The first lesion appears upon the 
hand or some part of the body that the hand has touched. It 
is a hard, raised, flattened, reddish nodule, with a surrounding 
zone of more or less indurated cellulitis (Fig. TO). It shows little 


Fig. 79.— The Primary Lesion of Anthrax. Diagnosis confirmed by microscopical 
examination of discharge from the ulcer, and of the blood. 

tendency to necrose in the central portion. The constitutional 
symptoms are severe and out of proportion to the local mani¬ 
festations, although they may not become so until several days 
after the infection lias taken place. The diagnosis can only be 
made with certainty by an examination of the serum and blood 
obtained from the pustule. The anthrax bacillus is large and 
has square ends, like the segments of a mature tapeworm, so that 
it is readily recognized in a stained smear by a simple micro¬ 
scopical examination. As confirmatory evidence, cultures should 






CERVICAL TUBERCULOSIS 


133 


be made. The bacillus grows readily upon any of the common 
culture media. If a positive diagnosis is made, the local lesion 
should be immediately excised. Further operative measures are 
generally useless, as the disease spreads through the blood as well 
as through the lymphatic system. A fatal termination is common, 
but is by no means invariable, so that life should not be despaired 
of at once. 

Cervical Tuberculosis. —Tuberculosis in the neck is situ¬ 
ated either in the lymph-glands or in the spine. Tubercular 
lymphadenitis is described, with other enlargements of the glands, 
on page 112. 

Tuberculosis of the bones of the neck or cervical Pott’s dis¬ 
ease, as it is called, is a condition which in its early stages is apt 
not to be recognized. Owing to the fact that the spines of the 
vertebrae are not so plainly to be felt as those in the back and in 
the lumbar region, the diagnosis is not so simple as it is in the 
latter situations. The first symptoms noticed are pain, stiffness, 
and rigidity of the neck. Later there is swelling of a diffuse 
character, making the neck somewhat thicker than before. There 
is great pain when the neck is bent, either by the patient or by 
the examiner. The trouble may be differentiated from acute sup¬ 
puration by the gradual onset of the disease, by the low fever, and 
the absence of surface heat, edema, and redness. From wryneck 
and the acute myositis which precedes wryneck, it can be differen¬ 
tiated by the situation of the swelling. In cervical Pott’s the 
swelling is invariably in the median line, though it may extend 
more to one side or the other. In myositis or wryneck the swelling 
is lateral or well to the front. In wryneck the chin is directed 
away from the side on which the sternomastoid muscle is prom¬ 
inent. In cervical Pott’s the chin is directed toward the affected 
side. In wryneck correction of the deformity is prevented by the 
bands which spring into marked relief when correction is at¬ 
tempted. In cervical Pott’s an attempt to correct the deformity 
is p,ainfill, and will be resisted by the hands of the patient. 

Cervical Pott’s is differentiated from deforming arthritis of 
the spine by the fever which it causes, by the involvement of the 
soft parts in the tuberculous inflammation, by the greater tender¬ 
ness, and by the age of the patient, much less in tuberculosis than 
in arthritis in most cases. The progressive rigidity of the spine 



134 


INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE NECK 


which occurs in arthritis is absolutely characteristic as the disease 
becomes more advanced. 

Treatment.— The object of treatment is to obtain relief from 
the weight of the head and to keep the parts at rest. This is 
accomplished by an apparatus known as a jury-mast which lifts 
the weight of the head by a strap placed under the occiput and 
under the chin. The instrument rests upon the back and shoul¬ 
ders and is secured in place either by straps or by a plaster of 
Paris bandage. Whether the disease will be arrested or progress 
to an unfavorable termination will depend upon the age of the 
patient, the hygienic surroundings, etc., more than upon local 
treatment. 

Deforming Arthritis. —The spine is involved in deforming 
arthritis with a frequency not generally recognized. At times 
the whole spine is involved, but oftener only a portion of it. The 
neck is the part most often affected. One writer has stated that 
in more than one third of all cases of deforming arthritis the cer¬ 
vical vertebra? are involved. On account of the irregular shape 
and close articulations of the vertebra 1 , the disease is apt to pro¬ 
duce a firm ankylosis of the portion of the spine involved. The 
most marked symptoms are increasing stiffness, and pain due to 
pressure upon the posterior roots of the spinal nerves. Zoster also 
occurs. The differentiation of this disease from cervical tubercu¬ 
losis has been given on the preceding page. 

The treatment should be both local and general. Massage, hot 
baths, and counterirritants may be used to relieve the pain. The 
general treatment will vary according to the ideas of the physician 
in regard to deforming arthritis. My own preference is for a resi¬ 
dence away from large bodies of water, for an out-of-door life, free 
from care, and with all the good food that the patient can take 
without producing symptoms of indigestion. 



CHAPTER V 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE NECK 

TUMORS 

Sebaceous Cyst. —This variety of tumor is found in the 
skin of the front and back of the neck, but with less frequency 
than upon the head. It presents no peculiarities on account of its 
situation, so that what has been said of the diagnosis and treat¬ 
ment of sebaceous cysts of the head is applicable here (see p. 66). 

Thyroid Cyst. (See Goiter, p. 145.) 

Thyreoglossal Cyst. —The region of the larynx is a favor¬ 
able site for congenital cysts and sinuses developing from some 
remains of the thyreoglossal duct, which at an embryological pe¬ 
riod extends from the base of the tongue through the hyoid to the 
thyroid cartilage. If the remains of such a duct open externally, 
one or more sinuses will persist and will discharge mucus. If the 
remains of the duct do not open externally or into the mouth, the 
secretion may give rise to a cyst containing mucus. Such a cyst is 
easily opened and its contents evacuated, and the sutured skin will 
heal per primam. In the course of a few days or weeks, however, 
the fluid will reaccumulate and the tumor will reappear. In order 
to avoid this unpleasant result the treatment should be thorough. 
The scar following an unsuccessful attempt to remove a thyreo¬ 
glossal cyst is shown in Eig. 80. This also shows the situation of 
the original sinus or cyst. If a sinus exists, it is invariably in the 
median line. 

Treatment. —The only successful treatment is the complete 

removal of the cyst and its duct. The situation is a conspicuous 

one and it is desirable to leave as small a scar as possible, yet the 

dissection must be deep enough to expose the abnormal tissue, both 

above and below the hyoid bone if need be. The skin should be 

cocainized or the patient given a general anesthetic. The incision 

135 




136 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE NECK 


should be made directly in the median line and more above than 
below the center of the tumor, as it is necessary to follow it up¬ 
ward. The dissection and removal of a rounded cyst is easy; that 
of a narrow sinus is more difficult, since it is often impossible to 
recognize it when it becomes attenuated. Even when there is a 



Fig. 80.— Thyreoglossal Cyst; Operation; Recurrence. Note the position of 
the cyst in the median line just below the hyoid bone. 

well marked cyst, an inconspicuous sinus often leads from its 
upper part. It has been suggested that such a sinus be injected 
. with a solution of methyl blue, so that the operator may follow 
it more readily. 

When the congenital tissue has been followed to the hyoid 
bone there will often be found a perforation of the bone. The 
lining of this should be curetted away, and if the sinus exists 
above the hyoid it should be followed and removed. When this 
has been done, the patient will have been given the best chance 
against recurrence, but a guarded prognosis should be given. The 
wound should be sutured entirely, or over a minute drain in its 
lower angle. 





LIPOMA 


137 


Branchiogenic Cysts and Sinuses. —Other congenital cysts 
and sinuses may be found in the sides of the neck, having de¬ 
veloped from the remains of the branchiogenic clefts, or at the 
base of the ear and posterior to it. These tumors are some¬ 
times made up of a few larger cysts and innumerable smaller 
ones, and contain either a clear serous fluid or one made thicker 
by the presence of mucin and other albuminous substances. They 
are benign in character, but on account of the deformity and their 
tendency to keep on growing they should be removed as thoroughly 
as possible. 

In making a diagnosis of a lateral cervical cystic tumor, 
aneurism of the carotid or one of its branches should always be 
considered. One thinks at once of expansile pulsation as a means 
of differential diagnosis. It should be borne in mind that if a 
tumor, cystic or solid, lies upon the carotid artery it receives an 
impulse from the arterial beat. This impulse may be mistaken 
for expansile pulsation unless a careful examination is made. 

Lipoma. —A fatty tumor or lipoma is probably the com¬ 
monest solid tumor of the neck. It occurs in three forms: simple, 
diffuse, and intermuscular. 

A simple lipoma is a well encapsulated tumor lying in the 
subcutaneous plane of fascia. It seems to form a part of the sub¬ 
cutaneous fat, but it soon exceeds this fat in thickness and is usu¬ 
ally covered by a thin layer of this fat. It may be found in any 
portion of the neck (Fig. 81). It tends to grow larger, and this 
causes an ever-increasing deformity. This is the one reason for 
its removal. 

Treatment. —A local anesthetic is sufficient unless the pa¬ 
tient is very sensitive. The incision in the skin should usually 
be parallel to or lie in one of the circular wrinkles of the neck. 
A transverse incision is also preferable if the tumor is situated 
at the back of the neck. The incision should be deepened until 
the capsule of the tumor is plainly seen. This is usually covered 
by some normal subcutaneous fat, and if the operator attempts to 
dissect out the tumor before the true capsule is reached, the diffi 
culties are unnecessarily increased and a ragged cavity will result, 
When the correct plane is reached the whole tumor can be quickly 
shelled out with blunt dissection either with the fingers or with 
closed, blunt-pointed, curved scissors. There is scarcely any bleed- 





p IO g 2 . _Diffuse Lipoma of the Neck. This tumor was symmetrically bilateral. 

One portion was removed five days before the photograph was taken. 





LIPOMA 


139 


ing, but the wound should he inspected for it, and if any bleeding 
vessel exists, it should be ligated with fine catgut lest a hematoma 
fill the cavity left by the removal of the lipoma, and for a time 
continue the deformity. The wound should be completely sutured 
with horsehair or fine black silk and elastic pressure applied by 
means of a gauze and cotton dressing and a firm bandage. This 
may be removed in three days and any small dry dressing be 


Fig. 


reapplied. The stitches should be removed—one-half on tk 
fourth day and one-lialf on the sixth day, or sooner if the wound 
is a small one. 

Diffuse Lipoma. —The second variety of lipoma develops in con¬ 
nection with the deep fascia. It is not encapsulated, it contains 
more fibrous tissue than the other two varieties, and its removal 



-*-------2---.— 

83—Fibroma of Nine Years’ Duration, Apparently Starting in th^ 
Fascia about the Sternomastoid Muscle. 






140 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE NECK 



is difficult and unsatisfactory. It usually develops symmetrically 
on both sides of tlie neck (Fig. 82). Fortunately it is rare. 

Intermuscular Lipoma.—The third variety of lipoma develops 
in the fascia between the muscles. It is found in the neck, trunk, 
and extremities. In structure it resembles the simple lipoma, 
being made up of lobules of almost pure fat, each surrounded by 
a complete delicate capsule. The dissection for its removal is 
therefore easy, but the extensive ramification of the tumor between 
the various muscles sometimes makes necessary a pretty long 
wound. • 

Fibroma.-—A pure fibroma, wholly subcutaneous, is not a 
very common tumor in any portion of the body. Such a one de¬ 
veloping slowly in 
connection with the 
left sternomastoid 
muscle is shown in 
Figure 83. It was 
removed without dif¬ 
ficulty, being fully en¬ 
capsulated (Fig. 84). 

Enlarged Lym¬ 
phatic Glands. — 
Acute Lymphadenitis. 
—The most common 
tumor of the neck is 
a swollen lymph- 
gland. In the strict 
use of the term this 
is not a tumor at all 
but an inflammation, 
a lymphadenitis. But 
for clinical reasons it 

Fig. 84. —Same Subject as Fig. 83, Showing the is Well to class these 
Tumor after Removal. It was fully encapsu- n i i i . 

lated and easily removed. enlarged glands With 

the tumors. The cer¬ 
vical glands are especially liable to swell on account of infection 
from bad teeth, or from throat troubles, such as ulcerated tonsil, 
or from inflammation in or about the ear, as well as from infected 
wounds of the skin. A very common source of lymphadenitis of 





ENLARGED LYMPHATIC GLANDS 


141 


the posterior cervical glands in children is pediculosis capitis. The 
child scratches the scalp to relieve itself of the intolerable itching, 
the scratches become infected, and the glands swell. An extreme 
case in which the glands have broken down and two large abscesses 
have resulted is shown in Figure 77, page 130. 

Whatever the source of infection, the glands lying in the 
path of the afferent lympli-vessels will become inflamed. One or 
more of them swells until it presents itself as a smooth, round, 
movable tumor, above which the skin is also freely movable. If 
the severity of the inflammation causes the gland to break down, 
fluctuation is obtainable and the inflammation extending to the 
skin will prevent movement of the latter over the gland. Later 
the abscess may break through the skin. Often, however, the 
infection, being of a milder character, does not extend beyond 
the capsule of the gland, and the acute symptoms of infection are 
wanting in the periglandular tissue; or the inflammation in the 
glands themselves may be of a more chronic form. In such a 
case the swelling of the gland will be painless, and there will be 
little tenderness even on pressure. 

One should never he satisfied with a diagnosis of simple 
lymphadenitis. The source of the infection should also be de¬ 
termined. If no cause for the swelling of the gland can be 
ascertained, the possibility of tuberculosis should be kept in 
mind. 

Treatment. —If the infection of the gland has not proceeded 
to demonstrable suppuration, the attention may be directed to the 
prevention of further infection by the treatment of the infected 
teeth, or sore throat, or wound of the skin. When the source of 
infection has been shut off, acute lymphadenitis will take care of 
itself in many cases. 

If fluctuation can be made out in a gland, the process will 
rarely undergo resorption wdthout a discharge of pus. In such 
cases it is better therefore either to drain the gland or to remove 
it entirely if this can be readily done. For if the glandular tissue 
is riddled with pus and germs, but has not necrosed, the relief of 
tension, when the abscess is incised, will give it a new lease of life, 
so that this glandular tissue may remain a long time in the wound, 
discharging constantly a purulent secretion and delaying wound¬ 
healing in an aggravating manner. If the whole gland is removed 


142 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE NECK 


with its capsule, union of the sides of the wound will he prompt 
and often primary. 

If the infection comes from the front teeth, so that the tumor 
forms in the situation of the submaxillary gland, this gland is ex¬ 
posed first in making the incision. It ought not to be sacrificed, 
however, because the source of the pus is not in its substance, but 
in that of one or more lymphatic glands lying just under it. If 
this caution is not borne in mind, the salivary gland may be need- 

lesslv excised. 

«/ 

Chronic Lymphadenitis, or Tuberculous Glands.—The lymphatic 
glands of the neck are also subject to inflammatory processes of 
a chronic character. Many times the process is distinctly tuber¬ 
cular, and can be shown to be such by the presence of tubercle 
bacilli in the excised gland. At other times, however, the tumor 
develops in a similar manner and presents the same clinical appear¬ 
ances, although no tubercle bacilli can be made out. Such patients 
are anemic, have a poor digestion, suffer from cold feet and hands, 
and have an appearance of malnutrition although the subcutaneous 
fatty tissue may be abundant. 

Treatment. —The treatment in tuberculosis is primarily hy¬ 
gienic. Such treatment should precede and follow the local treat¬ 
ment. Just what the local treatment should be must be determined 
in each particular case. If a single large gland exists, causing a 
deformity and suggesting the possibility of enlargement of other 
glands, its removal is absolutely indicated. If there are many 
slightly enlarged glands operation can be deferred. If there are 
numerous large glands, some of which are plainly suppurating, 
removal is necessary both to reduce the number of foci from 
which the disease may spread as well as to save the patient from 
abscess formation with resulting sinuses and disfiguring cicatrices. 

If a single movable gland is to be removed, a local anesthetic 
suffices in many cases. If many glands are enlarged, and espe¬ 
cially if one or more are adherent, the operation is a more formi¬ 
dable one and had better not be undertaken except with general 
anesthesia; for although the enlarged glands may seem to lie 
close to the surface, they invariably extend deeper than they ap¬ 
pear to do, and almost always there are others still deeper which 
are concealed by the more superficial ones. A thorough opera¬ 
tion in such cases means a free incision of the skin and superficial 




ENLARGED LYMPHATIC GLANDS 


143 


muscles and wide exposure of the cervical vessels. Such glands 
often lie just in front of the sternomastoid muscle and close to 
the internal jugular vein; others are usually found just behind 
the muscle or beneath it. Hence the division of this muscle 
greatly facilitates their removal. A transverse or TJ-shaped or 
Z-shaped incision through the skin is advocated on account of 
the splendid exposure it gives. The resulting scar is prominent, 
and should be avoided when pQssible, even though two separate 
incisions are required—one in front of the sternomastoid and one 
behind it. In cases of extensive involvement of the glands, it is 
well to remove as much of the gland-bearing fascia as possible. 
This requires a long and difficult dissection, which is folly de¬ 
scribed in good text-books on major surgery. 

The cases which may properly be considered here are those 
in which there are one or more enlarged glands, freely movable 
and easily accessible. In such a case it is better to make the in¬ 
cision directly over the glands and parallel to the edge of the 
sternomastoid muscle. When the various planes of tissue, skin, 
subcutaneous, and deep fascia have been divided, there will be ex¬ 
posed the outer capsule of the gland. If this is also divided, the 
gland may sometimes be shelled out like the pulp of a grape from 
its skin, especially if it is still solid and the inflammation has not 
set up adhesions between the gland substance and the outer cap¬ 
sule. In that case the dissection may be tedious, but should be 
persisted in until the gland is removed. The rule should always 
be to keep close to the gland in removing it. If a little of the 
gland substance remains, it is easy to remove it after the gland 
itself has been excised; whereas if the line of incision strays from 
the gland itself, serious damage may be done to some important 
vessel or nerve. 

The important structures to be kept in mind during the dis¬ 
section are the internal jugular vein and pneumogastric nerve in 
front of the sternomastoid muscle, and the spinal accessory nerve 
posterior to it. 

When the enlarged glands have been removed the wound 
should be cleansed and sutured. Even though necrotic material 
has been smeared over the wound by the rupture of a softened 
gland, primary union is still attainable in most cases if all dis¬ 
eased glands are removed. The finest of black silk sutures should 



144 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE NECK 


be placed through the skin wound, thus allowing the deeper parts 
to collapse and assume their normal relation. Light pressure ob¬ 
tained by a piece of sterile gauze placed on the wound and cov¬ 
ered with cotton and a gauze bandage will suffice to keep the 
deeper parts of the wound in apposition. If the wound is dry 
before it is sutured no hemorrhage need be feared. Even if the 
dissection is a limited one, it is better to confine the movements 
of the head for two or three days by the application outside of the 
gauze bandage of a starch bandage, made by tearing heavy crin- 
olin into strips two or three inches wide. These strips are rolled and 
immediately before being used they are wrung ont of hot water, 
care being taken not to squeeze out more of the contained starch 
than is necessary. In the case of a child, or of a restless adult, 
the bandage should run around the neck, up the back of the head 
and around the forehead, and should also extend under one or 
both arms (Ho. 22, Chapter XXI). This may seem like a very 
extensive dressing for a simple wound, but only in this manner can 
a wound in the neck be properly protected and the head kept quiet. 
In a day or two, when the starch has thoroughly dried, the parts 
of the bandage which extend under the arms may be cut away, 
as by that time the molding of the bandage to the shape of the 
neck and shoulders will be sufficiently firm. The wound should 
be dressed in four days, and half of the stitches removed, the rest 
being left in three or four days longer. From this time on a 
cotton-collodion dressing will sufficiently protect the wound from 
outside contamination. If the adult is quiet and the incision does 
not extend to the upper third of the neck, the bandage around 
the head may be omitted. 

Suppurating Tuberculous Glands. — Unfortunately the clean 
operations above described are often impossible because the pa¬ 
tient will not allow any operation until the pus has burst through 
the skin or at least has ruptured the capsule of the gland and has 
infiltrated the surrounding tissues. Under such circumstances the 
abscess-cavity must be drained through a suitable incision, but the 
operator should not content himself with this alone, but should 
make an attempt to remove all of the affected gland, either by 
means of a curette or, what is better, by means of forceps and 
scissors. If this dissection does not extend beyond the original 
capsule of the broken-down gland, the risk of spreading the infec- 



TUMORS OF THE THYROID GLAND 


145 


tion by this treatment is not worth considering, and the period of 
recovery will be materially shortened if one does not leave behind 
a half disintegrated gland, which will keep a sinus discharging a 
small amount of pus daily for weeks afterward. If, on tlie other 
hand, the gland is wholly removed, and free drainage is given 
to the wound, it may be able to close by granulation in a week 
or two. 

In Syphilis .—The cervical glands may be enlarged in syphilis 
either as an accompaniment of an ulcerated throat or as a later 
manifestation of the disease. In the former case, on account of 
the presence of pus, an incision may be necessary. Glandular 
enlargement due to syphilis will subside rapidly under antisyph¬ 
ilitic treatment, so that removal of the glands is not usually 
necessary. 

In Leukemia, Pseudoleukemia, Sarcoma, Carcinoma.—Other 
causes of chronic lymphadenitis are leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease, 
and the malignant tumors. It is well worth remembering that 
the cervical glands above the left clavicle have connection with the 
abdominal organs through the lymphatics which accompany the 
thoracic duct; and they may enlarge so as to be easily palpable, 
before the patient seeks advice for a gastric or hepatic cancer. 

Tumors of the Thyroid Gland, or Goiter. —The thy¬ 
roid gland is frequently the seat of hypertrophy and new growth. 
There may be a diffuse enlargement of a part or the whole of the 
gland, or there may be well marked nodules, either cystic (Fig. 
85) or parenchymatous in structure. Any such benign swelling 
of the thyroid gland is known as a goiter. This is a common 
affection in certain mountainous districts in Europe, but it is by 
no means confined to them, and seems to be increasing in fre¬ 
quency in Hew York City, possibly on account of immigration 
from such regions. The larger swellings, involving the whole 
gland if of parenchymatous nature, are sometimes associated with 
protrusion of the eyeballs and certain nervous symptoms. Such 
a goiter is called exophthalmic goiter (Fig. 86). 

Diagnosis. —Tumor of the thyroid may be recognized by the 
fact that it is drawn strongly upward when the patient swallows, 
on account of the close attachment of the thyroid gland to the 
larynx. It is not so easy to tell a cystic from a discrete parenchy¬ 
matous swelling. A diffuse swelling of even elastic consistence 












CICATRICES 


147 


throughout is invariably parenchymatous. A large cyst will yield 
a fluctuation wave when tapped upon or compressed. A small 
cyst and a small parenchymatous nodule react about alike in this 
respect. An aspirating needle will distinguish the two. 

Treatment. —The removal of a cystic or a parenchymatous 
nodule is not a difficult procedure if the surgeon is careful to con¬ 
trol hemorrhage step by step. Local anesthesia is sufficient. The 
best incision is parallel to the transverse wrinkles of the neck. 
The deep fascia is divided, any intervening muscle freed and 
pulled to one side, and the gland exposed. Its capsule and usually 
a thin layer of its substance must be divided before the nodule 
is reached. Hemorrhage is readily controlled by clamp and liga¬ 
ture. The nodule is shelled out of its bed. The divided gland is 
sutured with fine, catgut sutures which pass through its capsule; 
and the deep fascia is similarly sutured, while the wound in the 
skin is sutured with fine black silk. Only when there is oozing 
from the gland should a small drain be employed. 

The removal of a part of a diffusely enlarged thyroid gland 
is a much more serious matter and should be undertaken only after 
all precautions for a major operation have been made, and yet 
some of the most experienced operators use a local anesthetic in 
all cases of goiter. In no case should the whole gland be removed, 
as myxedema or other nervous disturbances are apt to lead to a 
speedy fatality. 

ACQUIRED DEFORMITIES 

Cicatrices. —Burns of the neck (p. 125) are often followed 
by annoying cicatricial contractions. Besides the disfigurement 
so caused, the force of the fibrous bands may keep the head twisted 
to one side or may bring the chin close down to the sternum 

(Fig. 87). 

Treatment. —Such a condition of affairs may be greatly im¬ 
proved by a suitable plastic operation in some cases and in others 
by extensive skin-grafting (Chapter XX). If possible, the offend¬ 
ing bands should be partially or wholly excised, as their presence 
will seriously interfere with the result of the operation. The exact 
details of such an operation cannot be given, as they must be made 
to correspond to the necessities of each particular case. It is well, 
however, for both the patient and the surgeon to recognize that 
12 



148 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE NECK 


the best results under such circumstances are obtained, not by a 
single extensive operation but by several lesser ones, repeated at 



Fig. 87. Cicatricial Contractions Following Burn of the Neck. 

intervals sufficiently long to reveal the gain made by each opera¬ 
tive attempt. 

Torticollis, or Wryneck. —Wryneck, or torticollis, is the 
shortening of one or more of the cervical muscles, so that the 
head is held in an abnormal position. There may or may not 
be a spasm of these muscles. The sternomastoid is the muscle 
most affected, although the posterior cervical muscles are usually 
involved to a certain extent (Fig. 88). The condition is thought 
to be due to a unilateral myositis of infancy, secondary possibly 
to traumatism at birth, or developing as one of the lesions of con¬ 
genital syphilis. As the child grows, the lack of exercise of certain 
muscles from the cramped position in which the head is con¬ 
stantly held, adds to the deformity and increases the muscular 
changes. If nothing is done to relieve the condition, the cervical 









TORTICOLLIS, OR WRYNECK 


149 



spine will become much curved, and there will he compensatory 
curves in both the dorsal and lumbar spine. Even the develop¬ 
ment of the head may be affected (Figs. 89 and 90). 

Strictly speaking, cases of torticollis may be divided into acute 
and chronic. Usually, however, the acute symptoms will have 
subsided before the child is brought to the doctor. 

Diagnosis. —In many cases the parent has already recognized 
the nature of the deformity. Inspection shows that the mastoid 
process on the affected side is nearer to the sternum than it should 
be. This means that the face is turned toward the opposite side 
and the chin slightly elevated, although the head may be bent 
toward the shoulder of the affected side. If the contraction is 
of long standing, the 
whole head will seem 
to have slipped over 
toward the unaffected 
side. This is due to 
the curvature of the 
neck. But the most 
reliable method by 
which to ascertain 
what muscles are af¬ 
fected is to make pal¬ 
pation and manipula¬ 
tion of the head and 
neck. When the head 
is flexed and extended, 
and abducted to the 
right and left and ro¬ 
tated, the difference in 
the muscles of the two 
sides of the neck is at 
once apparent. Such 

• -i , • • _ Fig. 88.—Wryneck of Right Side of Moderate 

manipulation is usu- Dkciree The position of the head is typica ,. 

ally not painful unless This patient was made absolutely straight by an 

. , , operation performed with cocain, and subsequent 

carried to an extreme manipulation. 


degree. 

A differential diagnosis between torticollis and tuberculosis of 


the cervical spine has sometimes to be made. In tuberculosis there 






150 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE NECK 


is extreme tenderness, inability to move the bead in any direction 
without pain, spasm of the cervical muscles when an attempt is 
made to do so. Moreover, there is a daily slight fever. 



Fig. 89.—Extreme Degree of Torticollis, said by Patient to be Congenital. 
Note the deformity of face, as well as of spine. The ulcer of the nose was due 
to recent traumatism. 


Treatment. —The first treatment of acute torticollis is the 
treatment of the traumatism or acute myositis in which it origi¬ 
nates. This consists in the application of heat, and the mainte- 



Fig. 90.—Back View of Same Patient. 








TORTICOLLIS, OR WRYNECK 


151 


nance of the head in a correct position, or at least the prevention of 
an increase in the deformity. If the condition is considered to 
he rheumatic, salicylate of soda should he administered. 

As soon as the pain subsides, treatment by manipulation should 
he commenced to correct existing deformity. The effort should he 
to overcorrect the deformity which exists. Therefore the face should 
be rotated in the opposite direction until .the affected sternomas- 
toid is tight. The chin should then he tilted downward and the 
head bent away from the affected shoulder. These manipulations 
should he made a number of times, and the treatment repeated 
each day until the deformity is overcome. Even then it is better 
for the physician to see the child once a week for a few weeks. 

If the patient is an infant, manipulation described may he 
carried out upon the mother’s lap. If it is an older child, it 
should sit upright during the treatment. In either case it is an 
advantage if a second person holds the shoulders while the ma¬ 
nipulations are made, so that the manipulator can make traction 
upon the head while twisting it and bending it. 

During sleep the pillow should he so arranged that the position 
of the body will tend to correct the deformity, or at least will not 
tend to increase it. 

In chronic cases, treatment by manipulation will succeed only 
if the affected muscles are still elastic; otherwise operative treat¬ 
ment is indicated. In slight cases, division of the sternomastoid 
muscle is necessary, whereas in the severer cases the trapezius sple- 
nius and other muscles will also require division. 

The incision may he made parallel to the edge of the sterno¬ 
mastoid or parallel to the clavicle. The former leaves a slighter 
scar. The incision should he at least an inch long. Usually, 
when the most prominent hands have been divided and tension 
has separated their cut ends, it will he found that other deeper ones 
still hold the head to a lesser degree in an abnormal position. 
Such hands should in turn he divided until motion of the head 
is free. The restraining muscular hands lie a little outside the 
sheath of the great vessels, and the latter could he injured only 
hy careless cutting. No deep suture is necessary. Hemorrhage 
should he stopped and the skin-wound entirely closed with fine 
black silk sutures. A firm dressing should he applied, and the 
head put up in an overcorrected position and held so hy a plaster 


152 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE NECK 


of Paris bandage placed around the neck, over the head, and under 
both arms (No. 22, Chapter XXI). If there is no rise of tem¬ 
perature or pain, the dressing need not be changed for a week or 
ten days. As soon as the wound has healed, gentle passive rota¬ 
tion and other motions of the head should be commenced and 
repeated every other day for several weeks. As time goes on, 
the force with which this is done may be increased, and in addition 
the patient should practise active motion daily to correct the de¬ 
formity and increase the mobility of the neck. The best single 
exercise that the patient can make is the following: Stand erect; 
turn the chin toward the affected side, without lifting it; incline 
• the head toward the shoulder of the unaffected side, while the face 
is still turned toward the other side; place the head erect. This 
exercise should be repeated several times morning, noon, and night. 
At first the patient should go through the exercise in the physi¬ 
cian’s presence, as he will otherwise almost certainly fail to make 
the motions correctly. 


SECTION III 

AFFECTIONS . OF THE TRUNK 


CHAPTER VI 

INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 

INJURIES 

Contusions of tlie Cliest and. Back. —Blows upon tbo 
chest and back on account of the firm underlying bones usually 
produce little injury. General directions for treatment of such 
injuries are given on page 2. 

Contusion of the Breast.—A blow on the mammary gland may 
produce a partial rupture with the formation of a hematoma (Fig. 



Fig. 91. —Large Hematoma of Mammary Region, Five Weeks After a Blow. 

91; see p. 3 for treatment) or an inflammation, mastitis, or 
even abscess. It may also be followed by a malignant growth. 

Hence the importance of immediate intelligent treatment. 

153 







154 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


IIot ? moist applications should be applied to the breast, or the 
surface may he covered with gauze thickly spread with ichthyol 
ointment, and outside of this a layer of non-absorbent cotton or 
lamb’s wool. Moderate, even pressure is to be maintained by a 
breast bandage, which should be so applied that the breast is sup¬ 
ported from the shoulder (Xo. 28, Chapter XXI). After a few 
days gentle massage should be administered. 

Contusion of the Back and Ribs.—Contusion of the back is con¬ 
sidered under the heading Sprain (p. 158), and contusion of a 
rib under the heading Fracture (p. 167). 

Contusion of the Abdomen. —Blows or undue pressure 
upon the abdomen are important less for their effect upon the 
abdominal wall than upon the abdominal organs, one or more of 
which may be ruptured or seriously injured by violence which 
leaves no mark upon the skin. 

A sharp unexpected blow upon the abdomen is apt to produce 
a condition of shock which is familiar to every boy under the 
phrase “ it knocked the wind out of him.” The abdominal muscles 
being off their guard, the force of the blow is received upon the 
sensitive structures beneath, especially upon the sympathetic gan¬ 
glia in the region of the solar plexus, and faintness and nausea 
and possibly vomiting and unconsciousness follow. Such a blow 
may even produce death, although this is not common in an animal 
the size of man. When the muscles are forewarned and have time 
to contract, they can protect the abdominal organs against a very 
heavy pressure. For instance, a man weighing, say, 170 pounds, 
can lie face downward bearing his whole weight on a horizontal 
bar which crosses his abdomen. The rigidity of the recti and other 
muscles prevents the bar from pressing backward enough to pinch 
the intestine or mesentery against the spinal column. This ex¬ 
plains how so many persons escape serious injury from the wheel 
of a moving vehicle, even though it passes directly across the 
abdomen. Such escapes have been frequently noted, even when 
the vehicle has weighed more than 3,000 pounds (750 pounds 
weight on each of four wheels). When the wheel is broad and 
rubber-tired, the possibility of escape from serious injury is natu¬ 
rally much greater than with a wheel having a narrow steel tire. 

Diagnosis. —The principal symptoms of contusion of the abdo¬ 
men are general. They are the symptoms which, grouped together- 



CONTUSIONS OF THE ABDOMEN 


155 


are spoken of as shock—namely, feeble pulse, pallor, cold, pos¬ 
sibly clammy skin, and frequent respiration. These are also the 
symptoms of internal hemorrhage and of rupture of the stomach 
or intestine, which are often the result of undue force applied to 
the abdomen. It is important to separate simple contusion from 
these other conditions, if possible, since their respective treatments 
are opposites. Often the progress of the case will alone decide. If 
there is uncomplicated contusion, the symptoms will rapidly dis¬ 
appear. If there is an accompanying internal hemorrhage or rup¬ 
ture, the pulse and respiration will increase in rate, the patient 
will become more restless, and the symptoms of shock will become 
more marked. Vomiting usually accompanies rupture of an intra- 
ahd'ominal organ. The vomitus should he examined microscopi¬ 
cally to determine the possible presence of blood. 

There is usually pain at the seat of rupture, extending thence 
in the direction in which the escaped intestinal contents would he 
likely to gravitate. If the amount of escaped fluid is large, its 
presence as free abdominal fluid may he shown by percussion with 
the patient lying first on his back and then on his side, or in 
other positions. Abdominal rigidity on palpation is a sign of great 
importance. It may exist in simple contusion, but it is less 
marked than it is in more serious conditions and tends to de¬ 
crease. 

In all cases of abdominal injury the whole abdomen should be 
carefully examined with the stethoscope. By this means one can 
determine whether the normal peristaltic action of the intestines 
is going on, whether normal peristalsis is at a standstill, and, 
roughly, the shape of the air-spaces which distend the abdomen, 
and the presence of free fluid or gas. All of these factors have their 
weight in determining the question of operation. If perforation of 
stomach or intestines is present, immediate operation and suture 
gives the patient the only chance of recovery. I nder such circum¬ 
stances the delay of a few hours will reduce such chance by at 
least one-half, as the successful cases are almost exclusively those 
operated upon within sixteen or twenty-four hours after the acci¬ 
dent. The character of the urine, and the patient’s ability to 
pass it, and the state of the bowels must also be considered, as 
rupture of the bladder or of one kidney is as urgent an indication 
for operation as is that of the stomach or intestines. 


156 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


Uon-oferative Treatment. —If it is decided that no serious 
internal injury exists, and in all cases, before a complete diagnosis 
can be made, the patient should be kept absolutely quiet in a hori¬ 
zontal position. An ice-bag or beat applied to the abdomen usu¬ 
ally helps toward this end. It is desirable to avoid morphine until 
the diagnosis is clear. If this is not possible, the doses given 
should be small, and should be administered hypodermically. Ab¬ 
solutely nothing should be given by mouth. If the skin is broken 
a light, moist, antiseptic dressing should be applied. The symp¬ 
toms of the patient should be noted every hour. If they all im¬ 
prove steadily, it may be safely inferred that there is a simple 
contusion. If they grow worse, and particularly if local muscular 
rigidity is noted or increases, laparotomy should be performed. 
It should be the aim of the surgeon to decide definitely for or 
against operation in less than twelve hours from the injury. This 
gives the patient the best chance of recovery after operation, what¬ 
ever the character of the injury. 

If the contusion is uncomplicated, the patient may be allowed 
water after twelve hours, fluid nourishment on the following day, 
and solid food after the bowels have been moved. 

It is well worth remembering that a contusion of the abdomi¬ 
nal wall may be accompanied by a contusion of the intestine with¬ 
out immediate hemorrhage or rupture. This is particularly apt 
to be the case after wheel injury. The slough of intestine may 
give way and allow the intestinal contents to escape into the abdo¬ 
men as late as two weeks after the injury. The warning sign is 
a localized contraction of the muscles of the abdominal wall. The 
patient should be kept in bed and on the simplest fluid diet until 
this disappears. 

Wounds. —Uncomplicated wounds of the trunk should be 
treated in accordance with the rules given on page 13. 

Hemorrhage from the Umbilicus.—This occurs in the infant, 
due to premature separation of the cord. The hemorrhage should 
be controlled by solution of adrenalin (1: 2,000) and pressure, or 
by application of peroxide of hydrogen full strength or diluted 
one-half, or if necessary by ligature. Asepsis should be observed 
in the dressing. 

Gunshot Wound of the Back.—Gunshot wound of the back 
as met with in civil life is frequently not serious, as the bullets 


WOUNDS 


157 


of small caliber fired from cheap revolvers do not penetrate through 
the thick muscles in this region. A bullet fired into the back may 
be deflected by the strong fascial planes or by some vertebra; it 
is therefore difficult to make out its exact location or to follow 
its track with the probe. Unless its situation is easily determin¬ 
able, the surgeon should recognize that the operation for its re¬ 
moval may be a protracted one, and should make preparation 
accordingly. If the bullet is within easy reach it may be extracted 
and the wound properly treated without a general anesthetic. The 
position of the bullet may be shown in a radiograph if the patient 
is not too stout. 

Penetrating Wound of the Pleural Cavity.—A bullet or the 
point of a knife may pass between two ribs and open the pleural 
cavity. Air or blood may then occupy the pleural space. There 
may be more or less shock. If there is no wound of exit, an at¬ 
tempt should be made to locate the bullet by means of the X-ray. 
If the lung is injured there is usually a certain amount of cough 
and hemoptysis and an effusion of blood into the pleural cavity, 
revealed by an area of dulness on percussion; but even these symp¬ 
toms may be very slight. If a large artery is broken, death fol¬ 
lows rapidly, partly from hemorrhage and partly from suffocation, 
as the blood which pours into the bronchi is imperfectly coughed 
out. 

Treatment. —Air or a small quantity of blood is readily re¬ 
sorbed from the healthy pleural cavity. Even a foreign body 
such as a bullet may give no trouble. It is best, therefore, not to 
explore a penetrating wound of the chest unless there is some 
definite reason for interference, such as the known accessibility of 
the bullet, continued hemorrhage, or the existence of suppuration 
(p. 175). Drainage is secured by the resection of two inches of 

one rib as described on page 177. 

Penetrating Wound of the Pericardial Cavity—A penetrating 

wound of the pericardium alone may be sutured under cocain 
after the excision ol an inch or two of one rib, oi the wound may 
be left to unite of itself. The danger in such a case is not from 
the extent of the injury, but from the possibility of subsequent in¬ 
flammation. Drainage is inadvisable m a lecent case, but if pus 
forms in the sac, extensive drainage will of course be required. 
If the heart is injured the case is by no means hopeless. Instances 


158 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


are on record in which after the resection of a portion of one or 
more ribs, the pericardial sac has been opened and the wound 
in the heart successfully closed by suture. 

Penetrating Wound of the Abdomen.—Every wound of the ab¬ 
domen should be explored until the surgeon can either see its bot¬ 
tom or can assure himself that it has entered the abdominal cav¬ 
ity. Whether it should be explored still further will depend on 
circumstances. It is generally agreed that the abdomen should be 
opened after every gunshot wound, and after every stab wound ac¬ 
companied by symptoms of hemorrhage or intestinal injury. As to 
penetrating wounds without symptoms of complication, it may be 
said that the risk of opening the abdomen with suitable facilities 
is less than the risk of allowing the injury to go without explora¬ 
tion. The younger surgeons at least are acting on this principle. 

Sprains. —Sprain of Back.—As a result of twists and falls, 
and less often of blows, the back is sprained, almost always at the 
junction of the lumbar and sacral regions. Often under such cir¬ 
cumstances there is little or no change in its appearance; the usual 
symptoms are those of stiffness, and pain at the pelvic attachment 
of one or both lumbosacral muscles, noticed especially when the 
position is changed after a short period of quiet or when an 
attempt is made to bend the body in certain directions. Some¬ 
times it is almost impossible to stand erect. In the simpler cases 
the symptoms are due to stretching or bruising of the muscles or 
of the intermuscular cellular tissue. In the severer cases it is 
probable that some of the muscular or fibrous threads are broken; 
at any rate, the symptoms often persist for a provokingly long 
period, sometimes for several weeks. 

It is not always possible to differentiate a sprain of the back 
from lumbago. The latter is technically a neuralgia in the mus¬ 
cles of the back, and usually comes on after exposure to cold. If 
such exposure is combined with overexertion it may be impossible 
to tell whether the symptoms are due to sprain or to lumbago. As 
the treatment is similar in some respects, the doubt is less impor¬ 
tant than it would be otherwise. 

Treatment.— The first indication for treatment is the relief 
of the pain. This may be constant, or occur only when the mus¬ 
cles of the back are contracted. There may be a partial spasm of 
the muscles which greatly aggravates the pain. The patient should 





SPRAINS 


159 


remain in bed while the symptoms are acute, and external heat 
should be applied. This may be moist or dry. A liot-water bag 
filled with boiling water is a convenient form of application. Hot 
moist compresses may be applied, covered with flannel, and still 
further heated by a flat-iron. 

Massage is indicated, especially around the origin of the 
strong muscles of the back from the sacrum and ileum. The 
massage to be effectual must be given with a good deal of force; 
hence mechanical vibration with a good machine is most service¬ 
able in these cases. 

Dry-cupping is another means of relieving pain in this region 
which is not used nearly as often as it should be. 

The various counter-irritants may be employed. Xo one is 
better, and none so cleanly, as the thermocautery. The point of 
the cautery, preferably a round one, should be kept at a pale red 
heat, and should be swung in circles which just touch the back 
tangentially. In this manner the cauterization can be performed 
with a delicacy quite impossible if a forward and backward 
movement be given to the point. The pain of this treatment is 
very slight if the point passes swiftly over the skin, so that the 
cauterization can be continued until the whole painful area lias 
been thoroughly gone over. The treatment may be repeated the 
following day, if necessary. Sometimes a single application will 
effect a cure. 

It is rarely necessary to give morpliin. Acetanilid, or one 
of the other coal-tar products, is sufficiently powerful if an anal¬ 
gesic is necessary. 

There is one other remedy which is said to stop the pain in 
lumbago almost instantly, and that is the injection of from four 
to twelve ounces of sterile normal salt solution into the muscles 
of the back. 

In cases of sprain it is important to support the back and to 
keep the injured parts at rest. For this purpose a proper strap¬ 
ping with adhesive plaster is excellent. The use of a porous plas¬ 
ter is too well known to require mention. A far more efficient 
support can be obtained as follows: two strips of adhesive, three 
inches broad, are applied on either side of the spine from the 
lower angle of the scapula nearly to the tuberosities of the isehia. 
There should be a space of a half inch between them. Six trans- 


160 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


verse strips, each two inches broad, and long enough to reach a 
little more than half-way around the body, should cross these ver¬ 
tical strips at right angles (Fig. 92). There should he a space 



Fig. 92. —Strips of Adhesive Plaster 
Applied to Give Support to a 
Sprained Back ; Gridiron Strap¬ 
ping. 



Fig. 93. —Strips of Adhesive Plaster 
Applied Diagonally to Give Sup¬ 
port to a Sprained Back. 


of half an inch to an inch between each one of these to allow the 
perspiration to evaporate and to lessen the itching which follows 
the application of a broad, unventilated strip of adhesive plaster. 

Another method of strapping is to apply the strips of adhesive 
plaster diagonally. It is easier to make the plaster fit a hollow 
back when it is applied in this manner (Fig. 93). 

Whatever the method of strapping chosen, the patient should 
stand upright or lie prone on his face when the strips are applied, 
so that the back may be fully extended at the time. He should 





SPRAINS 


161 


subsequently avoid bending forward, as that loosens the plaster 
and lessens its usefulness. The strapping should be repeated every 
two or three days, or as often as it loosens. The old plaster can 
be peeled off, or washed off with ether or benzin or “ carbona.” 

In some cases the administration of the salicylates seems to 
hasten recovery. This is especially true in cases of lumbago. 

Railroad Spine.—The effects of a severe contusion of the back 
or sprain of the spinal column are sometimes felt for months or 
years. It is important for the surgeon to know whether the symp¬ 
toms complained of are real or are kept in the mind of the patient 
by an expected suit for damages. This doubt has earned for this 


Fig. 94. —Tests for Injury of the 
Spine. The patient bends forward. 
Note the full normal curve of the 
spine. 


Fig. 95. —Tests for Injury of the 
Spine. The patient bends backward. 
Note the concavity of the dorsolum- 
bar region. This attitude is impos¬ 
sible in sprain. 




type of injury the name “ railroad spine.” Without going into 
the remote details of this subject, it is worth while emphasizing 
one point. Whoever examines one of these patients should inspect 









162 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


and palpate the back from the skull to the sacrum, and should 
then test the functions of the spine in the following manner: The 
patient should he stripped to the hips and stand erect with his 
back toward the surgeon. 1. ITe should bend forward and back¬ 
ward several times, keeping the knees straight, while the surgeon 
notes the flexibility of the different portions of the spine (Figs. 
94 and 95). If any portion has been injured the muscles will 



Fig. 96.—Tests for Injury of the Spine. 
The patient bends to the left, keep¬ 
ing the knees straight. The same mo¬ 
tion should be made to the right. 


Fig. 97.—Tests for Injury of the 
Spine. The patient twists to the right 
and then to the left without moving 
the feet. 


hold it rigid while the other parts are bending. This is especially 
striking if one side is involved more than the other. This con¬ 
traction of a part of the muscles of the back is something which 
cannot be imitated, and if present represents real injury. 2. The 
patient stands erect as before, and then, without flexing the knees, 
he bends his body toward the right and then toward the left, while 
the range of motion of the spine and possible irregular muscular 
action is noted as before (Fig. 96). 3. The patient, without mov- 










FRACiURES 


163 


mg liis feet on the floor, twists his shoulders around to the right 
as far as possible, and then around to the left (Fig. 97). The 
limit of motion in these various directions, and any other points 
obseived, should he recorded for future comparison. 

Treatment, llie treatment in these cases must be long con¬ 
tinued to produce permanent results If tenderness is marked, the 
spine should be supported by a plaster of Paris jacket (Chapter 
XXII). In most cases it is better to obtain the support by a re- 
mo\ able corset, so that there may be daily massage and exercises. 
Mechanical vibration is of great service. Out-of-door life and 
other hygienic measures are of the greatest importance. There 
is a strong tendency to hysteria in these- patients, and the regu¬ 
lation of the daily life should be such as will lessen rather than 
increase this tendency. 

Fractures.—Fracture of Clavicle.—Sometimes by direct vio¬ 
lence, or more often as a result of falls upon the arm or shoulder, 



Fig. 98. —Fracture of Left Clavicle in the Usual Situation of one Week's 

Duration. 

the clavicle is fractured. Any portion of the bone may be broken, 
but the line of fracture is in the great majority of instances within 
an inch of the center of the bone (Fig. 98). The normal outline 
is changed, due to edema and the irregularity of the broken bone. 
The amount of deformity varies greatly. The line of fracture 












164 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


is usually an oblique one, and either the outer or inner fragment 
is displaced backward. 

There is more or less disability of the arm, extreme motions 
being limited by pain. In some cases measurement from the ster¬ 
nal to the scapular end of the bone will show a shortening, but this 
is not always the case. There is a swelling and tenderness at the 
site of fracture, and crepitus can usually be obtained, unless the 
fracture is near the outer extremity of the bone. In that case 
motion between the fragments may be prevented by the various 
ligamentous attachments to the coracoid and acromion processes. 
Eccliymosis is usually present, but is often slight. 

Treatment.— On account of the impossibility of applying any 
form of apparatus on both sides of the bone, treatment of a frac¬ 
tured clavicle, aiming to reduce the misplaced fragments and to 
keep them in position, is eminently unsatisfactory. This does not 
mean that a bad result is to be anticipated. On the contrary, in 
most cases the bone unites speedily, with little deformity, if the 
arm is merely kept in a sling. Many times some child’s mother 
has brought it for treatment two weeks or more after the fall 
occurred, with not the slightest idea that any bone had been 
broken. The pain disappeared a day or two after the accident, 
and she only sought medical advice on account of the slight swell¬ 
ing at the seat of fracture, or because the child still cried when 
lifted by that arm. In these absolutely untreated cases there is 
often union with a minimum of deformity. 

If no deformity exists, or if it is slight, the patient should 
not be tortured with unnecessary apparatus. The arm should 
merely be supported in a sling, or if the patient is restless, or is 
a child, a simple bandage of the arm to the chest should be applied. 
A good bandage for this purpose is the Velpeau (Vo. 30, Chapter 
XXI). This method of treatment is adapted not only to fracture 
of the outer portion of the clavicle, but to many fractures in the 
central portion. Sometimes existing deformity may be lessened by 
pressure directly upon the projecting fragment, obtained by a com¬ 
press of gauze and two strips of adhesive plaster crossed over it 
in an X. This is only advisable in those cases in which slight 
digital pressure has been found efficacious in replacing a fragment. 

There remain for consideration those cases in which deformity 
is considerable. The fracture is usually oblique and the fragments 


FRACTURES 


165 


liave overlapped. If the fracture is recent, one can usually reduce 
the overlapping hy grasping the upper part of the arm and pulling 
the shoulder outward and backward. But while this can be accom¬ 
plished manually, and for a few minutes without pain, attempts 
to keep up this extension for two or three weeks are sometimes 
very painful, so that the patient wriggles until the pull is less¬ 
ened, or, if he fails to do so, the skin where pressure is greatest 
may become excoriated. I have repeatedly seen instances of this 
in cases in which a Sayre’s dressing has been applied. 

Extension upon the Principle of the Lever .—There are two 
ways in which the shoulder may be pried out and backward hy 
means of bandages alone. A pad may be placed in the axilla, and 
upon this as a fulcrum the humerus may he used as a lever. When 
the elbow is brought to the side the shoulder is pried outward. 
This is the principle of the antiquated Desault bandage (Xo. 31, 



Fig. 99. —Sayre Dressing for Frac¬ 
ture of Clavicle. Rear view. Show¬ 
ing application of first strip of adhe¬ 
sive plaster. 



Fig. 100. —Sayre Dressing for Frac¬ 
ture of Clavicle. Front view. 
Showing application of second strip 
of adhesive plaster. 


Chapter XXI). Gradual flattening of the pad relieves the patient 
and does away with the extension upon the clavicle. The other 
method is that of the Sayre dressing and the Moore bandage. In the 
Sayre dressing the upper part of the humerus is fixed well back" 








166 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


ward by a loop of adhesive plaster about the arm and a continua¬ 
tion of the same around the back and side of the chest, until it 
is fastened to itself. The elbow is then pulled well forward and 
fixed by a second strip of adhesive plaster. The first loop acts 
as a fulcrum and the shoulder is carried backward (Figs. 99 and 
100 ). 

Moore’s bandage acts on a similar principle, by pushing up¬ 
ward the shoulder and drawing backward the arm by means of a 
strip of cotton cloth twisted around the elbow in two directions. 

Direct Extension by Means of Rigid Apparatus .—If a prop¬ 
erly padded splint is placed across the back of the shoulders they 
may be bandaged or strapped to it, and thus extension of a broken 
clavicle be obtained with a minimum of pressure upon the soft 
parts. A board used for this purpose is likely to slip unless it 
is fixed by an upright piece. This makes a veritable cross, and 
few patients will consent to be bound to such an apparatus for 
two or three weeks. It is, however, very efficient in reducing de- 
* formity to a minimum. 

Another plan which often succeeds is the application of the 
posterior figure of eight bandage of the chest (No. 26, Chapter 
XXI) in plaster of Paris. The bandage should be reenforced with 
a molded strip across the back of the shoulders, or a light wooden 
splint may be incorporated in it. 

Reduction by Operation .—Of course none of the methods of 
extension above described is applicable unless reduction can be 
accomplished manually without the employment of much force. 
In other cases, unless one is willing to allow union to take place 
with deformity, it will be necessary to make an incision over the 
site of fracture to bring the ends of the bone into a correct posi¬ 
tion, and to keep them there by means of a suture of chromicized 
catgut or kangaroo tendon. It may seem like an unwarrantable 
procedure to convert a simple into a compound fracture, but in 
the experience of the writer the result obtained often justifies the 
operation, as the bone will unite without deformity, and the scar 
in a few weeks can scarcely be made out. Such an operation can 
be performed with cocain if the patient is old enough to appre¬ 
ciate the advantages of local anesthesia. The suture material em¬ 
ployed should be capable of resisting disintegration for at least 
four weeks. 


FRACTURES 


167 


Fracture of the scapula is far less common than that of the 
clavicle. If the fracture is of the body of the scapula or of its 
acromion process it is easily made out, crepitus usually being ob¬ 
tained by direct manipulation. jSTo treatment is required other 
than limitation of the motion of the arm. Fracture of the neck 
of the scapula is a rare accident, whose exact diagnosis, like that 
of other fractures about joints, is most surely made by a good 
radiograph. The arm should be kept at rest for four or six weeks 
by a shoulder cap and sling (cf. Ho. 34, Chapter XXI). 

Fracture of Sternum.—A severe blow is required to break the 
sternum. Even if this occurs, displacement of the fragments is 
unlikely. So that diagnosis depends upon the history, tenderness 
on pressure, and also on pressure at a distance, and in some cases 
on crepitus. If displacement has occurred, the displaced frag¬ 
ment may be lifted by boring into it with a coarse gimlet or a 
slender corkscrew. Once in place it will remain so without assist¬ 
ance. The front of the chest should be strapped with adhesive 
plaster to limit motion. 

Fracture of the Ribs.—Fracture of a single rib is an extremely 
common accident. It usually is the result of a fall upon a sharp 
edge or corner. The ribs most exposed are oftenest broken. That 
is to say, the patient falls upon his side, striking upon the seventh, 
eighth, ninth, or tenth rib, and one of them is broken, usually in 
the posterior or anterior axillary line. Sometimes the rib is broken 
in two places two or three inches apart. There is usually little 
or no displacement of the broken ends. Pain, after the first feel¬ 
ing of injury has passed off, is not great, unless the patient coughs, 
laughs, or sneezes. The pain is apt to increase for a few days, 
since respiration constantly moves one broken end upon the other. 
To avoid this the patient breathes as much as possible with his 
sound side. Tie often loses some sleep, and is incapacitated for 
hard work for three or four weeks. 

The symptoms due to fracture of the ribs are simulated by 
those which follow a blow from some sharp object. This may in¬ 
jure the periosteum, and possibly crack the bone, although definite 
signs of this are wanting. There is tenderness on pressure, and 
perhaps pain, although the pain will not be greatly increased by 
respiration nor by pressure upon the rib at a distance from the 
point of injury, as is the case in complete fracture. There is, 


168 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


after a few days, a sliglit, hard swelling close to the bone which 
simulates a callus, but is of less extent, and the deformity is less 
than if the rib were fractured. The symptoms usually last from 
one to three weeks. 

Treatment. —The pain can be materially lessened by apply¬ 
ing a broad strip of adhesive plaster directly over the broken rib. 
A strip five or six inches wide and long enough to reach half-way 
around the body, should be fastened posteriorly first and then be 
drawn strongly and slowly forward to the front of the chest and 
made fast by pressing it close to the skin. The more tight and 
smooth the fit of the plaster, the greater will be the relief to the 
patient. It is sometimes recommended that when one end of the 
plaster has been fastened, the patient shall expire vigorously while 
the surgeon quickly draws the plaster tight and sticks it to the 
skin; but on the whole a more satisfactory result can be obtained 
by a slower and more careful application in the manner described. 
It is better that the plaster should cover only the affected side. 
This leaves the well side free to expand without pulling upon the 
injured side, as is the case if the plaster extends all the way 
around the body. If the skin is hairy it should be shaved before 
the plaster is put on; otherwise the patient will hold the one who 
removes the plaster in lasting remembrance, as most of the hairs 
will be so firmly embedded in the gum that they will be pulled 
out by the roots with the removal of the plaster. 

Fractures of the Vertebrae.—Owing to the closeness of their 
articulations to one another and to the ribs, the dorsal vertebrae, 
except the lower two or three, are rarely fractured by indirect vio¬ 
lence. Fracture of the lower dorsal vertebrae and of the lumbar 
vertebrae may follow a severe fall or blow or be caused by a bullet 
or sharp instrument. In most cases the fracture of the bone is 
overshadowed by the injury to the cord. As this does not extend 
below the first lumbar vertebra the prognosis is more favorable 
the lower down the seat of fracture. Life may be prolonged almost 
indefinitely even though the cord be seriously injured, but sooner 
or later, in spite of the greatest care, the patient dies from sepsis 
due to the extensive ulcers of the back or legs, or to purulent 
cystitis, or to pyelitis, caused by the unavoidable catheterization. 

The immediate symptoms of fracture of a vertebra are pain, 
tenderness, edema, and at least partial loss of motion and sensa- 


DISLOCATIONS 


169 


tion. Ecchymosis is usually slow in making its appearance. All 
of these symptoms may be present in severe cases of contusion 
without fracture. Signs due only to fracture are crepitus, the dis¬ 
placement of a spinous process, and angular deformity produced 
when the spine is flexed or extended. In cases in which there is 
great pressure upon the cord or destruction of the same, there will 
be inability to urinate or defecate, and loss of sensation and motion. 

Treatment. —In a doubtful case of fracture the patient 
should remain in bed until tenderness has disappeared. After that 
the treatment given on page 158 is applicable. If there is a frac¬ 
ture without injury to the cord, a plaster of Paris jacket should 
he applied in an extended position. The patient may be allowed 
to get up in two or three weeks, hut should wear the jacket for 
two months. After its removal he should he treated by massage 
and exercise, with plenty of rest in a horizontal position. 

The treatment of fracture accompanied by injury to the cord 
is beyond the scope of this hook. 

Dislocations. — Dislocation of Clavicle. —The clavicle may he 
dislocated from the sternum. The tendency to displacement is not 
marked, and a pad upon the overriding hone, with light pressure 
obtained by adhesive plaster strips and a bandage, will usually 
prevent its recurrence. If this is not successful, a periosteal 
suture should he performed. Fixation by either method should 
he maintained for several weeks. 

Dislocation of the outer end of the clavicle also occurs. The 
symptoms are usually slight. The end of the clavicle projects up¬ 
ward. It is easily reduced by direct pressure or by drawing the 
shoulder outward. This, together with absence of crepitus and 
the absence of shortening of the clavicle when measured from the 
sternum to the outer projecting end, will differentiate this injury 
from fracture; though fracture of the clavicle sometimes occurs 
without shortening. It may be treated in the same manner as dis¬ 
location of the inner end, but any form of apparatus usually fails 
to keep the end of the clavicle firmly down on the acromion. This 
can he accomplished by passing a long fine drill through the acro¬ 
mion and well into the clavicle, and leaving it in place for eighteen 
days. The operation should he carried out aseptically. 

Dislocation of Costal Cartilage. —Sometimes the cartilage of the 
tenth rib may he separated from that of the ninth at its anterior 



170 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


end, and by its occasional slipping forward and backward give rise 
to a little pain. The radical treatment is the amputation of the 
anterior tip of the cartilage; or counter-irritants may be applied 
until the acute symptoms subside and the patient grows accustomed 
to the sensation. 

Dislocation of Vertebrae. —Dislocation of either dorsal or lum¬ 
bar vertebrae without fracture rarely occurs, and when it does so 
it is a partial dislocation in most cases. Attempts at reduction 
should be made under general anesthesia with great care (see p. 
125). If successful, a plaster of Paris jacket should be applied. 


ACUTE INFLAMMATIONS 



Burns.—The burns which occur on the body or trunk present 
no especial characteristics. As the body is protected by the cloth¬ 
ing, the heat applied, whether of flame, fluid, or vapor, usually 

affects a consider¬ 
able area. An ex¬ 
ceptional case is 
shown in Figure 
101. This man 
was working in an 
iron foundry, with 
scanty clothing, 
when the steam in 
a wet mold explod¬ 
ed and spattered 
him with small 
drops of liquid 
iron. 

TREATM ENT.- 

Directions for the 
treatment of burns 
have been given on 
page 26. The im¬ 
mediate discomfort 
from burns of the 

Fig. 101. —Multiple Burns of Body of Five Days’ i s ^ ebS P r °- 

Duration Produced by Spattering Liquid Iron. portion to their 




INSECT BITES 


171 


area than it is in burns of the head and neck, and on this account 
one may be misled into making an unduly favorable prognosis. 
When the destroyed skin begins to slough the gravity of the situ¬ 
ation will be more clear. Hence the importance of saving the 
strength of these patients in every way from the very first. 

Insect Bites. — Pediculi. —By the marks of the nails one can 
usually make a diagnosis of pediculosis corporis. These body lice, 
which are vulgarly called “ graybacks,” live not upon the person 
of an individual, hut upon his clothing. The marks of their 
bites are insignificant. The itching produced is extreme, and the 
patient has the habit of drawing his nails across the affected part 
of the skin in long sweeps. Minute excoriations of the skin often 
mark the track of these long scratches, many of which become 
infected, so that shallow ulcers result, which heal slowly, often 
with pigmentation. The diagnosis of the trouble can generally 
be made from the appearance of the skin. A search in the under¬ 
clothing will result in the finding of pediculi. Essential treatment 
consists in the destruction of the parasites by baking or boiling 
the clothing, and observance of personal cleanliness. The itching 
often persists for days, so that an antipruritic may be indicated. 

Fleas and Bedbugs. —The bites of fleas and bedbugs can usu¬ 
ally he distinguished by their distribution. A flea travels quickly 
from one place to another, so that the bites of a single insect, from 
six to twelve or more in number, will often he scattered over half 
the body. A bedbug, on the other hand, makes numerous bites in 
one locality. These are often strung out in a row like the splashes 
made by a flat stone when it is skipped over smooth water. It is 
sometimes difficult to distinguish a bite from the lesions of urti¬ 
caria. If the latter have not been scratched, the skin involved 
will not show any break; whereas the skin of a bite made by a 
flea or a bedbug will invariably show in its center a small puncture. 

Treatment. —As infection is often caused by scratching an 
insect bite, it is important to relieve the itching. A solution of. 
camphor in alcohol, or some other cooling lotion, is good for this 
purpose. Another excellent method is to brush the involved skin 
lightly with a whisk-broom or a not too stiff hair-brush. This 
relieves the itching without breaking the epidermis. 

Scabies. —Scabies is also accompanied by itching, so that the 
excoriations may obscure the burrows of the insect. A minute 



172 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


examination of the skin will usually reveal the characteristic little 
row of brownish specks (the fecal masses of the insect) in the 
substance of the more or less inflamed skin. If the lesions are 
found on the hands, the differential diagnosis from pediculosis 
corporis is certain, as the body lice do not bite the exposed parts 
of the body. 

The treatment of scabies consists in the disinfection of the 
clothing, and a hot bath at night, followed by a thorough rub¬ 
bing of all suspected portions of the skin with sulfur ointment. 
In the morning another bath with soap and water should be taken. 
After three or four days, if patches of the disease remain, the skin 
should be treated again in the same manner. 

Herpes Zoster. —This disease, on account of its predilection 
for the area of the intercostal nerves, may be here considered. It 
develops rather suddenly with pain and some fever, followed 
by an eruption of groups of small vesicles. Often the skin 
supplied by a single nerve is affected; sometimes that by two 
adjacent nerves; rarely that supplied by two opposite nerves, 
making it bilateral. It runs a natural course to termination 
with drying up of the vesicles in a few days, but in the mean¬ 
time, by the burning and pain, it may make the patient very 
uncomfortable. 

Treatment. —The vesicles should be protected from rupture. 
The burning may be relieved by the frequent application of a 
solution of menthol in alcohol, twenty grains to the ounce. Mor- 
phin may be required to control the pain in some cases. 

Cellulitis and Dermatitis. —Cellulitis, erysipelas, and the 
various local suppurative processes occur frequently upon the 
trunk. .In so far as they have no peculiar characteristic due 
to their situation, the description of them and the treatment 
given on pages 33 et seq ., must suffice. Only a few special 
forms of inflammation will be described in this section. 

Excoriation of the Breast. —In stout women the constant con¬ 
tact of the skin of a pendulous breast with that of the abdomen 
may lead to excoriation, ulcer, or even abscess. These conditions 
rapidly disappear under suitable treatment. As a preventive the 
parts should be bathed frequently, the skin rubbed with alcohol, 
and dusted with a talcum powder. If an ulcer has formed, wet 
dressings should be employed. 


MAMMARY ABSCESS 


173 


Mammary Abscess. —The common period for the occur¬ 
rence of an abscess of the breast is during early lactation, and 
especially the first lactation. The infection takes place through 
a crack or excoriation of a too tender nipple, and this can almost 
always he found upon search. The usual signs of suppuration 
are present. A portion of the mammary gland and the overlying 
skin are indurated and tender, and in the center of this affected 
area there can usually be made out a smaller area of fluctuation. 

Treatment. —If the inflammation is seen at an early stage, 
wet applications should he made to the nipple and breast, either 
cold compresses, or flaxseed poultices, or wet compresses with heat 
applied externally, as spoken of in connection with abscess of the 
head (p. 38). A baby should not be put to the inflamed breast, 
although he may continue to nurse from the opposite one if the 
mother has only a slight degree of fever. The milk should be 
drawn regularly from the affected breast, and if in a day or two it 
is seen that the inflammatory process is increasing, an incision 
should be made into the center of the indurated area, where, as 
above stated, a soft spot can usually be felt. If the softened area 
is plainly palpable, it is useless to further postpone operation. 
The incision may be made under local or general anesthesia. It 
should invariably be made in a line radiating from the nipple. 
Neglect to observe this rule has led to the division of milk ducts 
and the establishment of a mammary fistula. 

An abscess of the breast has a strong tendency toward recovery, 
and the incision therefore does not need to be much longer than 
the diameter of the suppurating area. The cavity should be thor¬ 
oughly washed out with a solution of bichlorid of mercuiy, 
1: 2,000, and a dilute- solution of peroxid of hydrogen, one part 
to five. A drain should be inserted in the abscess-cavity, but it 
should not greatly distend it. The hot, moist, gauze diessing 
should be continued. Under these circumstances any further se¬ 
cretion of pus quickly finds its way into the dressing, and the 
wound has an opportunity to heal just as rapidly as it is able to 
do so. Uot until the repair has reached the subcutaneous fatty 

tissue should the drain be omitted. 

Often in an abscess of the breast which has lasted for some 
time, so that the zone of cellulitis about the pus cavity is not an 
excessive one, incision and cleansing will terminate the whole 



174 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


pathological process so that the sides of the cavity will adhere 
and almost primary union of the wound will follow. If this rapid 
method of cure be attempted, the dressing should be changed at 
least every day, and if there is any retained discharge, the cavity 
should be washed out again and the drain inserted to a greater 
depth. 

If the suppuration is more excessive and has passed beyond 
the capsule of the gland and has lifted up, as is frequently the 
case, a portion of the gland from the underlying ribs, more than 
one incision may be necessary to provide suitable drainage. Under 
such circumstances, one incision should be made at the most de¬ 
pendent portion of the abscess-cavity as the patient lies in bed or 
as she sits up, according to circumstances. If she is up most of 
the time, the most favorable point for drainage is immediately 
below the breast, whereas if she is lying in bed the outer edge 
of the breast or a point between this and the lower edge will be 
found most serviceable. If the pus shows a tendency to approach 
the surface at any point, that place should be selected for one of the 
incisions, as there are other factors connected with perfect drain¬ 
age besides the force of gravity, and unless there are plain contra¬ 
indications the point chosen by nature for the discharge of pus 
had best be accepted by the surgeon as the most suitable one. 

The best drain for these cases is made by cutting the tip from 
a rubber finger cot and passing through it a wick of gauze. In 
this manner the gauze will be prevented from sticking to the sides 
of the wound. Ihe rubber is more flexible and stronger than the 
gutta percha tissue usually employed in a “ cigarette ” drain. 

Preventive Treatment.— The physician who has charge of 
a pregnant woman should give her directions for the enlargement 
and toughening of the nipples by daily massage, applications of 
alcohol, alum, etc., and if they are retracted they should be drawn 
out with a breast-pump. In this manner they can be prepared for 
nursing two or three months before the birth of the child, and 
cracked nipples and mammary abscesses can almost invariably be 
avoided. 

Axillary adenitis and suppuration are described in Chap¬ 
ter XV. 

Inguinal adenitis and suppuration are described in Chap¬ 
ter VIII. 


EMPYEMA 


175 


Umbilical Suppuration. —The skin of the umbilicus may 
ulcerate or an abscess may form as a result of the irritation which 
is produced in a deep umbilicus by the dirt and secretions which 
may collect there, and even form a hard ball. Cleanliness and 
moist antiseptic dressings will speedily effect a cure. Umbilical 
sinus, which may also suppurate, is described on page 181. 

Bed -sores. —An ulcer of the skin of a bedridden patient 
caused by pressure upon some one point is called a bed-sore. 
The sacral region is the commonest situation, both on account 
of its poor blood-supply and the habit many patients have of 
lying the whole time upon their back. There is first a dusky 
redness over the area about the size of a quarter of a dollar, then 
the epithelium gives way at the center and a sore is started which 
gradually involves the whole thickness of the skin, or possibly the 
whole thickness of the skin is at once involved and becomes dark 
and gangrenous and sloughs leaving a large ulcer. The skin over 
the great trochanter is also often the seat of a bed-sore. The rapid¬ 
ity with which a bed-sore may form, especially in a patient weak¬ 
ened by long disease, is truly amazing. 

Treatment. —Frequent massage and the use of alcohol will 
usually prevent the formation of an ulcer if the weight of the 
body is supported upon soft pillows or an air-ring, so that the 
pressure upon the bony prominences is avoided. AVhen an ulcer 
has formed, it should be washed frequently with mild antiseptics 
and dressed with a mildly stimulating preparation. Compare the 
treatment of ulcers of the leg, given in Chapter XVIII. 

Empyema. —Pus in the pleural cavity, or empyema, is a con¬ 
dition demanding surgical treatment. The signs of empyema are 
fever, increased pulse and respiration, dulness or flatness in the 
lower portion of the affected side of the chest, above^which is 
usually a zone of bronchophony with pleuritic rales. The diag¬ 
nosis is not always an easy one to make, and the importance of 
prompt drainage is great, so that in a doubtful case it is better to 
make one or more exploratory punctures in order to be certain of 
the presence and the location of the pus. These punctures should 
be made with a large hypodermic needle. The needle used by 
veterinary surgeons for hypodermic injection is just right for the 
purpose. The syringe need not be a large one, an ordinary hypo¬ 
dermic syringe is large enough. 





Fig. 102. Instruments for Drainage of Chest in Empyema. A, scalpel; B, scissors; C, probe; D, mouse-tooth forceps; E, artery 
clamps; F, hooked retractors; G, blunt retractors; H, periosteal elevator, one end of which is bent; I, rib cutter; J, tubular drains. 











SYPHILIS 


177 


Treatment. — When there is pus in the pleural cavity, drain¬ 
age should be accomplished by the removal of an inch and a half 
of the eighth or ninth rib in the posterior axillary line. Drainage 
through the tenth rib is apt to fail from gradual elevation of the 
diaphragm. The operation may be performed under a general 
anesthetic, but if the respiration is embarrassed by the amount of 
fluid in the pleura, a local anesthetic is safer. The instruments 
required are shown in Figure 102. The soft parts overlying the 
rib are cut through parallel to its long axis for a distance of two 
or three inches, the scalpel being pressed firmly against the rib 
so as to split its periosteum. This is then reflected above and 
below, and bone shears passed between the inner portion of peri¬ 
osteum and the rib. An inch of the rib is removed and its cut 
edges trimmed if rough. This technique avoids injury of the inter¬ 
costal artery. The pleural cavity is then opened in the long axis 
of the rib, and when most of the pus has escaped two soft-rubber 
tubes pierced by the same safety pin are inserted. A stitch at 
either end of the wound is an advantage. A dry creolin gauze 
dressing is applied and changed as often as it becomes moistened 
by pus. Forced expiration should be practised by the fifth day. 
The patient is shown how to blow colored water from one Wolff 
bottle to another. This exercise should be kept up for five minutes, 
and repeated several times a day. It is of the greatest service in 
stretching the collapsed lung. The force of expiration can be 
increased by elevating the second bottle a few inches. 

Drainage with two tubes should be continued until granulations 
have shut off the pleural cavity from the wound. The tubes may 
be shortened a half inch at a time as the cavity grows smaller, but 
they should not be removed as long as they enter the pleural 
cavity; nor should they be replaced by tubes of smaller caliber. 
If a tube is lost in the pleural cavity, it may be extracted with long 
curved forceps guided by the fluoroscope (Whitsitt). 

CHRONIC INFLAMMATIONS 

Syphilis .—The trunk has its full share of the secondary and 
tertiary lesions of syphilis. An isolated gumma, appearing long 
after all other manifestations of the disease have disappeared, is 
often a puzzle in diagnosis. A common seat for the same is the 


178 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


region of the sternum. The constitutional treatment is important. 
Any protective dressing will answer locally. 

Tuberculosis. —Tuberculosis involves the skin of the trunk, 
and especially of the back (lupus). Its essential characteristics 
are the same as those of the disease when seated in the skin of 
the face (see p. 63). Because of the concealed situation, more 
radical excision and skin-grafting are permissible. 

Tuberculosis of the bones and joints of the trunk is so fully dis¬ 
cussed in larger works upon surgery and orthopedic surgery that it 
will be considered here chiefly for the sake of early diagnosis. 

Tuberculosis of the Sternoclavicular Articulation.—This joint 
is attacked by tuberculosis as well as by syphilis. In either case 
the periarticular tissues are swollen. In tuberculosis, one or more 
tender spots in the end of the clavicle can usually be made out. 
Later an abscess may form and rupture. 

If treatment by fixation is determined upon, it is easily secured 
by keeping the arm bandaged to the chest and carrying the fore¬ 
arm in a sling. 

Costal Tuberculosis.—One or more ribs may be attacked by 
tuberculosis. The general health of the patient suffers little, so 
that the disease may be disregarded for some time. When the 
patient first comes for examination, there may be an abscess or a 
sinus, the pus having already broken through the skin. A probe 
will follow such a sinus obliquely to the eroded bone. The fingers 
will recognize that beyond the abscess-cavity the periosteum is 
thickened. More than one rib is often involved, the extent of the 
disease being greater in one than in the other. Erosion of the 
inner surface of the rib is usually more extensive than that of its 
outer surface. 

Operative treatment is strictly indicated, and should be car¬ 
ried out under general anesthesia. An incision should be made 
over the affected rib parallel to its long axis, and the diseased bone, 
periosteum, and other tissues fully removed. This can usually 
be accomplished without opening the pleural cavity, so that the 
shock of operation is slight. The wound should be fully drained. 
Recovery from the operation is prompt, but the patient should be 
kept under observation for a considerable time, as extension of 
the process along the same or adjacent ribs is the rule rather than 
the exception. 




TUBERCULOSIS 


179 


Tuberculosis of the Vertebrae.—The symptoms of tuberculosis 
of the cervical vertebrae have been given on page 133. When the 
disease is situated in the dorsal or lumbar vertebra?, the symp¬ 
toms elicited vary somewhat according to the accessibility of the 
parts to palpation, and the varying degrees of motion that are 
their normal possession. An essential to diagnosis in every case 
is a thorough examination of the whole back, stripped to the skin 
for the purpose. Such an examination will almost always enable 
the surgeon to state positively, even in the early stages of the dis¬ 
ease, not only that the spine is affected, but that the disease is situ¬ 
ated in certain vertebrae. The various symptoms to be observed 
are: Slight edema along the spinous processes, slight deformity 
(which often disappears entirely in some positions), tenderness 
when the affected vertebrae are pressed upon (a sign often absent 
in children who cannot or will not differentiate pressure upon one 
vertebra from that on another), and rigidity or a lack of freedom 
in using the affected part of the spine. Compare the tests for 
sprain of the back given on page 162. A symptom which is 
chronologically a late one, but which is sometimes the first thing 
a patient notices, is the swelling due to an abscess. This may be 
situated near the spine posteriorly or it may come to the surface 
at the side of the trunk, or following down the front of the spine it 
may appear above or below Poupart’s ligament. 

Treatment. —As is well known, the treatment for a tubercu¬ 
lous focus which cannot be removed is immobilization, and relief 
from pressure. In the case of the spine these objects are partially 
obtained by a plaster jacket or a brace, and more perfectly ob¬ 
tained by a stretcher frame, a form of apparatus especially adapted 
to a child of four years or less. 

Sacroiliac Tuberculosis.—Another common seat for tuberculosis 
is the sacroiliac synchondrosis. The difficulty of recognizing the 
disease in this situation is great, so that a correct diagnosis is often 
not made for a long time. A history of traumatism is apt to 
be confusing; the traumatism may have caused the trouble or be 
entirely independent of it. In either case it is apt to mislead the 
surgeon into thinking that he has to do with a severe sprain. The 
early symptoms are pain, slight fever, and a disinclination to 
exertion. As there is practically no motion between the ilium 
and sacrum, the best sign of tubercular joint disease, namely, limi- 
14 


180 INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE TRUNK 


tation of motion, is in this case wanting; yet the patient moves 
with awkwardness and unusual care when he is asked to stoop, rise, 
sit, squat, etc. If there is no history of injury the diagnosis of 
rheumatism is apt to he made. The age of the patient, the limi¬ 
tation of the trouble to a joint to which rheumatism is rarely if 
ever confined, and the slight hut constant afternoon fever, serve 
to differentiate the two diseases. 

Treatment. —In tuberculosis, of course, no benefit follows the 
administration of salicylates. Treatment is eminently unsatis¬ 
factory. Cases have been recorded in which an early resection of 
the joint has led to recovery, but owing to the fact that a diagnosis 
is usually not made until pus appears either in the groin or in 
the buttock, the most favorable period for radical treatment has 
already passed, so that operations are usually palliative, to afford 
a more direct exit for the pus and so to relieve the patient of pain 
and some fever. The usual course is a steady decline through some 
years to death, unless the resisting power of the patient can be 
raised by hygienic measures. 

Tuberculosis of the Mammary Gland.—One of the less common 
situations for tuberculosis is the mammary gland. Because of its 
rarity, and because of the similarity of the lesion in its general 
outline to carcinoma of the breast, this mistaken diagnosis is often 
made. There will generally be a history of tuberculosis in the 
patient, or examination of the corresponding lung may show that 
the primary trouble was located within the chest and has worked 
outward. If an ulcer or sinus exists its appearance will keep an 
observant man from making a wrong diagnosis. There will be in 
the edges of the tubercular ulcer none of the active growth which 
is always seen in the edges of a carcinomatous ulcer. The axil¬ 
lary glands are usually enlarged if an ulcer exists. 

Treatment. —In tuberculosis of the breast it is quite unneces¬ 
sary to remove more than the affected part. Usually the whole 
gland is diseased at the time of operation, but unless the axillary 
glands are plainly diseased it is wrong to subject the patient to 
the extra shock of an axillary dissection. On account of the pos¬ 
sible involvement of an underlying rib, a general anesthetic is 
preferable. If the disease is plainly limited to the freely movable 
breast-gland, a complete removal can be satisfactorily effected 
under local anesthesia if the patient’s temperament warrants it. 


CHAPTER VII 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 

TUMORS 

CYSTIC TUMORS OF THE TRUNK 

Sebaceous Cysts. —These cysts occur less often upon the 
trunk than upon the head. They are very rare below the waist 
line. They have the same characteristics as those of the head 
(p. 66) and require the same treatment. 

Umbilical Cysts and Sinuses. —It sometimes happens that 
the duct which in fetal life leads from the umbilicus to the blad¬ 
der, and which is called the urachus, is not completely closed at 
birth. Or it may he closed in part. As a result there may be a 
sinus discharging urine, or a short sinus with a slight discharge 
of sebaceous material, or a cyst lined with epithelium and contain¬ 
ing sebaceous material. Or it may have no external orifice and 
may first manifest itself as a tumor situated below the umbilicus 
and containing sebaceous material. 

Treatment. —The cyst or sinus should be removed by dissec¬ 
tion through an elliptical incision made close around it.. In some 
cases this is very easy; in others it is necessary to open the peri¬ 
toneum for a short distance. As it is impossible to know this 
beforehand, the operation should be performed with extreme asep¬ 
tic precautions. When the cyst or sinus has been removed, the 
abdominal wall should be closed in three layers peiitoneum, deep 
fascia, and skin—in order to prevent hernia. As the condition is 
an annoying one, rather than one which interferes with healthy 
development, the operation may be safely postponed if the patient 

is an infant, until it is some years old. 

Coccygeal Cysts and Sinuses. —These formations are 
congenital in origin, but they may not be noticeable until adult 

life In their simplest form the skin at the lower end of the 

\81 


9 



182 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


spine is so folded in upon itself that it forms an isolated cyst, 
lined with epithelium, or a sinus also lined with epithelium, one 
or both ends of which reach the surface of the skin. As the epi¬ 
thelium contains hair-roots, such a cyst or sinus is likely to fill up 
with sebaceous material and short hairs. If near the surface the 
contents may discharge from time to time. Such a cyst or sinus 
is usually situated low down in the median line over the coccyx 
or sacrum. It is likely to become inflamed from time to time. 
With the discharge of a mixture of sebaceous material and pus, 
the acute signs of inflammation subside. 

Treatment.— To rid the patient of this annoying condition 
the cyst or sinus should be fully exposed by a median incision and 
all traces of an epithelial structure removed. The wound may 
then he closed by suture, and primary union he anticipated even 
if acute infection is present; although, if the infection is marked, 
it is advisable to drain with a wick of rubber tissue some portion 
of the wound. At the change of dressing on the first or second 
day this should be removed, and if the inflammation has subsided 
it should not be reinserted. The operation is readily performed 
under local anesthesia. 

Dermoid Cysts. —There are other dermoid tumors in the 
region of the coccyx which may contain, in addition to sebaceous 
material and hair, fragments of bone and other structures, or even 
fairly well developed portions of another fetus or twin. They 
should be removed and the gap closed by a plastic operation or 
by skin grafts. 

CYSTIC TUMORS OF THE BREAST 

Retention Cysts of Infancy. —An infant’s breast some¬ 
times secretes a milky fluid, which collects in the larger ducts 
about the nipple, and forms a soft fluctuating swelling. If the 
secretion is forcibly expressed from the nipple once or twice the 
swelling will disappear. 

Retention cyst in tlie adult may be due to scar tissue, fol¬ 
lowing abscess of the breast, or perhaps a misdirected incision.' 
It will usually not be necessary to excise such a cyst. If it 
is split open and drained the normal granulations will obliter¬ 
ate its cavity. (Compare the description of a salivary cvst on 
page 71.) 




GRANULOMA OF THE UMBILICUS 


183 


Simple Cysts and Cystic Adenomata. —Cysts of the 
mammary gland apparently due to disordered secretion are very 
common in young women. Such a tumor is freely movable, 
rounded, and elastic; hut it is very difficult to obtain fluctuation 
in it on account of its small size. It cannot always he differ¬ 
entiated from a solid tumor, except by aspiration. Moreover, 
the withdrawal of fluid does not absolutely distinguish the two, 
as many adenomata and some malignant tumors contain cysts. 
ISTaturally, in such a case, the withdrawal of the fluid will not so 
collapse the tumor as it will a simple cyst. The fluid may he like 
serum, straw-colored, or it may have a pink, red, or brown tint. 

Treatment. —Aspiration as a means of diagnosis has been 
spoken of. It sometimes cures the patient, the fluid not again 
accumulating. Should this happy result not follow, or should the 
withdrawal of fluid not cause the immediate collapse of the tumor, 
operation is indicated. Small tumors can he removed from the 
breast under cocain; but on account of the sensitiveness of the 
part, and of the patient, a general anesthetic is better in most 
cases. If the operation is a short one the patient can rise and go 
home in a few minutes. It is well to bear in mind that a small, 
easily movable tumor seems much nearer the surface during pal¬ 
pation than it does when one is cutting through skin, fat, and 
fascia and an outer layer of the mammary gland in the search for 
it. It is a help to have the assistant seize the gland on either side 
and stretch the skin tightly over the tumor while the incision is 
being made. 

The incision itself should radiate from the nipple. So much 
of the mammary gland as contains the cyst should be removed by 
an elliptical or a pie-shaped incision. The wound in the gland 
should be closed by catgut sutures, and the wound in the skin 
should be closed by silk sutures. Ho drainage should be used, or 
at most a small wick of gutta perclia tissue introduced through 
the skin to provide for the escape of blood. 

SOLID BENIGN TUMORS OF THE TRUNK 

Granuloma of the Umbilicus. —Excessive granulation 
sometimes follows the removal of the stump of the umbilical coid. 
Owing to the confined situation the mass of granulations gradu¬ 
ally assumes a polypoid shape. 



184 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


Treatment. —This condition is easily cured by the applica¬ 
tion of a drop of pure carbolic acid on a wooden toothpick. A 
slower but safer and no less certain method is the daily applica¬ 
tion of undiluted hydrogen peroxid upon a minute cotton swab. 
This method is preferable if the point from which the granula¬ 
tions spring is so hidden by folds of fat that it is not readily 
brought into view. 

Intra-abdominae Complications. —In rare cases a poly¬ 
poid tumor of the umbilicus is covered with mucous membrane; 
or it may be lined with mucous membrane and communicate 
with the intestine. It should be removed, but not until one 
has at hand sutures to close a possible opening into the in¬ 
testine, and others to close a gap in the abdominal wall if 
necessary. 

Keloid. —This firng smooth tumor occurs in scars, especially 
in those of the trunk. It is made up of fibrous tissue, is inti¬ 
mately connected with the corium, projects a quarter of an inch 
more or less above the level of the skin, and is covered with a 
shiny epithelium of poor quality, in which dilated vessels are 
often seen. At an early stage of its development it cannot be 
told from a hypertrophied scar. As time goes on, however, the 
hypertrophied scar tends to shrink and lose its pink color, while 
the keloid maintains its size or continues to grow, exceeding the 
original limits of the scar, and sometimes sending out prolonga¬ 
tions into the skin around, which have been compared to crabs’ 
claws, hence the name keloid. When a keloid develops in a wound 
which has been sutured, the scars of the individual stitches some¬ 
times give rise to a greater growth than the line of incision itself. 
The skin of the negro is peculiarly susceptible to the formation 
of keloids. 

Treatment.— Surgical ingenuity has not yet succeeded in 
evolving a generally successful cure of keloid. Individual cures 
by various means have been reported, by dissection, by caustics, 
by long-continued elastic pressure, and by the X-ray. If the orig¬ 
inal scar was a bad one, and the surplus skin in the vicinity per¬ 
mits of a complete dissection, with suture of the wound and prob¬ 
able primary union, this plan is worth trying. The suture should 
be an intracuticular one, or the interrupted stitches of fine silk 
should be removed at the earliest possible moment, about four 





LIPOMA 


185 


days. Tension upon the new sear should be prevented by cross 
strips of adhesive plaster for several weeks. But even when ail 
these precautions are taken recurrence often follows. 

Papilloma: Fibroma: Fibrolipoma. —These names are 
given to pedunculated tumors of fat and fibrous tissue covered with 
essentially normal skin. They vary in size from that of a 
pin-head to one inch or more in diameter. Frequently the tumors 
are multiple (Fig. 103). Some of them are congenital, some 



Fig. 103. —Fibrolipomata of the Back, of Five Years’ Duration. Patient a 

girl aged nineteen years. 


acquired. The minute ones so often found on the neck or in the 
axillae seem due to friction of the clothing. A papilloma is a 
strictly benign growth, but on account of the annoyance caused by 
it, and its tendency to increase in size, it had best be removed. 

Treatment. —A small papilloma may be snipped off even with 
the surface of the skin with a pair of scissors. A larger one should 
be removed by a elliptical incision close to the base of the pedicle, 
made through the whole thickness of the skin. Such a wound 
when sutured will give the minimum of deformity. 

Lipoma. —Lipoma of the trunk is relatively common, espe¬ 
cially upon the shoulders. Such a tumor is lobulated, and while 
growing m the layer of subcutaneous fat its septa aie intimately 
adherent to the skin. Hence the skin is dimpled when an attempt 
is made to lift it from the tumor. This is one of the diagnostic 





186 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


signs of lipoma of the simple subcutaneous type. It is well en¬ 
capsulated by thin jdanes of connective tissue, so that it is easily 
shelled out. 

Treatment. —On account of the insensitiveness of the parts 
involved below the skin the removal of even a large lipoma of the 
trunk can readily be accomplished with a local anesthetic (Tigs. 
104 and 105). This applies only to the simple or usual type of 
lipoma. Tor a description of the diffuse lipoma and of the inter¬ 
muscular lipoma, both of which varieties are found in the trunk, 



Fig. 104. Lipoma of Back. Two years’ duration; removed without pain, with an 
injection of 40 minims of 2 per cent, cocain solution. Another view of tumor is 
shown in the upper corner. 

see page 139. The skin is incised for a distance equal to one-half 
or more of the diameter of the tumor. If the tumor is covered 
by a layer of the subcutaneous fat, this is also divided so that 
the capsule of the tumor shall be exposed. This capsule is next 








ADENOMA 


187 


divided, and then the 

fatty tumor can be 

«/ 

readily peeled out of 
its compartments in 
the fascia, by a blunt 
and generally blood¬ 
less dissection, with 
the fingers or blunt- 
pointed curved scis¬ 
sors. With the remov¬ 
al of the tumor the 
edges of the wound 
are to be fully retract¬ 
ed and any bleeding 
points secured and 
compressed or ligated 
with fine catgut. The 
skin is sutured with¬ 
out drainage or over 
a wick of gutta¬ 
percha tissue. 



Fig. 105. —Lipoma Shown in Figure 104 after Re¬ 
moval. The scale of inches shows its length. Its 
weight was 25 ounces. 


SOLID TUMORS OF THE BREAST 

Hypertrophy. —Sometimes during adolescence one of the 
breasts will become abnormally firm and larger than its fellow 
and rather more sensitive to pressure, but without acute pain. 
The enlargement is diffuse and uniform, and there is no adhesion 
of the breast to the structures either beneath or superficial to it. 
Such a condition has a tendency to resolve in the course of time. 
This return to the normal state may be hastened by an applica¬ 
tion of ichthyol ointment. 

Adenoma. —An adenoma or an adenofibroma of the breast is 
a tumor which is composed of a localized increased growth of 
glandular and fibrous tissue. There are several types of such 
tumors distinguishable microscopically, but as no adenoma is com¬ 
posed only of glandular tissue and no fibroma is without a certain 
increase in glandular tissue, and as both of these often contain 
cysts, an exact differential diagnosis between them is not always 
possible, nor has it more than a pathological significance. The 




188 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


tumor is generally painless and is first noticed by the patient 
during a hath or by accident. In other cases there is a little pain 
in the tumor. 

Treatment. —Such tumors are essentially benign, but they 
may also change their type of growth into one which has a ten¬ 
dency to spread into the surrounding tissues. Hence they should 
be removed, or at least carefully watched from month to month 
in order to be sure that they are not growing. Puncture with a 
hypodermic needle, and aspiration, will differentiate between a 
cystic and a solid tumor if fluid is obtained. A negative aspira¬ 
tion is not conclusive (p. 183). If the tumor is small and freely 
movable, a local anesthetic will often suffice; but otherwise, and 
especially if the patient is more than thirty years of age, she 
should- be told beforehand of the possibility of a major opera¬ 
tion and should be given a general anesthetic. If the growth is 
found to be malignant, the operation should be continued until 
it includes the removal of the breast and dissection of the axillary 
and clavicular regions, and the excision of one or both pectoral 
muscles, according to the judgment of the surgeon. It is of great 
assistance at such times to have a pathologist present, who, by ma¬ 
king frozen sections of the excised tumor, can determine whether 
or not it is of a malignant character. In general, one should be 
very suspicious of even a small, freely movable tumor which has 
been growing but a few months and is painful. This is especially 
the case if the patient is a woman more than thirty years of age. 

The Early Diagnosis of Malignant Tumors of the 
Breast. —The treatment of malignant tumors of the breast is 
quite out of the range of minor surgery, but the importance of a 
correct diagnosis in the early stages is so great and these tumors 
are so often first seen in ambulatory practise, that the diagnostic 
points should be emphasized. 

In examining a patient’s breast these points should be observed: 

Palpation .—The patient should lie flat on the back with both 
breasts exposed for the sake of comparison. Some examiners pre¬ 
fer to have the patient sit upright, but the recumbent position is 
better for a thorough examination. Each breast should then be 
thoroughly examined by rolling its substance between the palmar 
surface of the fingers and the wall of the thorax. The aim of the 
examination is to determine the presence of any nodules or other 




EARLY DIAGNOSIS OF MALIGNANT TUMORS OF THE BREAST 189 


irregularities. If there are multiple nodules in both breasts, the 
case is probably one of chronid mastitis. The same is probably 
true of multiple nodules in one breast, for if these are cancerous, 
the disease will of necessity be far advanced, and some of the other 
symptoms will be present. A single nodule in one breast, or in 
each breast, may or may not be cancer. It should be further 
examined. 

Retraction of the Shin. —This is best shown by pushing the 
breast, bnt not the tumor, toward the suspected part of the skin. 
Retraction of the skin, under these circumstances, is one of the 
most reliable signs of cancer. 

A Flattening of the Normal Curve of the Breast Over the 
Tumor. —This is determined by sighting across it with the eye 
on the same level. If present it is an indication of malignancy. 

The Presence of One or Mure Enlarged Glands in the Axilla 
or Between the Breast and Axilla. —This is not one of the earliest 
signs. Both axillae should be palpated. If the glands in each are 
equally enlarged, and only one breast contains a nodule, the axil¬ 
lary glands are presumably non-cancerous. 

Palpation of the axilla is best performed as follows: If the 
left axilla is to be palpated, the surgeon stands to the right side 
of the patient. He lifts her left arm away from the body, and 
places the fingers of his right hand well up in the left axilla. The 
arm is then lowered, or brought to the chest, until the muscles are 
relaxed. The surgeon is then able to draw his fingers with the 
skin of the axilla back and forth over the axillary contents, and 
to feel any glands which are present. 

Retraction of the Nipple. —This is an early sign of cancer 
only when the disease begins under or near the nipple. In other 
cases the growth may be well advanced before retracting the nipple. 

Hemorrhage from the nipple , either spontaneous or occurring 
when the nipple is gently squeezed, is a symptom of value if there 
is no inflammation or other obvious explanation of its occurrence. 

Failure to Withdraw Fluid through a Fine Aspirating Needle. 

_A long hypodermic needle is sufficiently large. Fluid indicates 

cystadenoma in most cases, though some cancers contain fluid. 

The importance of carcinoma of the breast is so great that, 
unless the examiner can be sure that the tumor is of a benign char¬ 
acter, he had better assume it to be malignant. In doubtful cases 




190 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


a section should be removed for microscopical examination. This 
may be successfully done with coSain, unless the patient is of a 
nervous disposition. If the tumor is malignant, an extensive re¬ 
moval of breast and axillary gland and pectoral muscles and fascia 
is indicated. 

Carcinoma beginning in the nipple, so-called Paget’s disease, 
may be mistaken for eczema. There is redness and scaliness, fol¬ 
lowed by a shallow ulceration with a slightly indurated base and 
narrow indurated margin. It is inexcusable to neglect such a con- 
dition, since the microscopic examination of a small section of 
the affected skin will reveal the true nature of the disease. 

Sarcoma.—Sarcoma of the breast differs somewhat from car¬ 
cinoma in its gross characteristics inasmuch as it usually develops 

at a greater distance 
from the nipple and 
forms a diffuse swelling 
deeply situated beneath 
the skin, and often ex¬ 
tending beyond the mar¬ 
gin of the breast in one 
or more broad lobules 
before the surgeon’s 
advice is sought in re¬ 
gard to it. It grows 
rapidly, without pain, 
and forms new nodules 
by continuity rather 
than through the lym¬ 
phatic system; hence 
the axilla may be en¬ 
tirely free although the 
tumor has grown to a 
diameter of two inches 

Fig. 106. —Epithelioma of the Back at an Or more. Such a free- 

Early Stage. The drawing was made from dom of the axilla is 
the tumor after removal. Note the margin of 

healthy skin on all sides of the epithelioma. never Seen ill carcinoma 

of the breast of a similar 
size. Sarcoma grows more rapidly than carcinoma, and a thor¬ 
ough and early removal is, therefore, not less important. 





CARCINOMA AND SARCOMA 


191 


Tuberculosis may be mistaken for a malignant tumor (see 

p. 180 ). 

Tumors of the Male Breast.—The male breast, as has al¬ 
ready been said, suffers from the same diseases as the female 



Fig. 107. —Cross-section of the Tumor Shown in Figure 106. Note that the 
tumor has not yet invaded the subcutaneous tissue. 


breast. As the fear of disfigurement is not so strong, the male 
patient will usually seek surgical advice soon after be has discov¬ 
ered the tumor of the breast. Hence the prognosis along opera¬ 


tive lines is fairly good. If neg¬ 
lected, however, cancer of the male 
breast develops in fully as virulent 
a manner as that of the female 
breast, forming metastases, extend¬ 
ing; inward into the chest, and 
causing the death of the patient 
from ^exhaustion. 

MALIGNANT TUMORS OF THE 
TRUNK 

Carcinoma and Sarcoma.— 

The skin of the trunk may be 
the seat of malignant tumors. 
They have no especial character¬ 
istics duo to their situation (Tigs. 
106 and 107). If seen early, 
the prognosis after removal is un¬ 
usually good, since the surrounding 



Fig. 108. —Melanosarcoma of 
Lower Abdomen of Four 
Months’ Duration Growing 
from a Mole or Soft Wart. 
Patient a woman aged fifty-four 
years. 






192 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


tissues may be 
sacrificed with 
much freedom, and 
hence the incision 
is usually carried 
wide of the growth 
(Fig. 108). 

An instructive 
mistake in diag¬ 
nosis is connected 
with the patient 
shown in Figure 
109. A fluctuat¬ 
ing swelling devel¬ 
oped soon after an 
injury. Aspiration 
produced a bloody 
fluid, and the needle 
touched abnormal 
bone. A diagnosis 
of sarcoma of the 
scapula was made. 
When the patient 
was operated upon 
it was found that 
there was an osteoma of the scapula, which had so irritated an 
adjacent bursa as to cause an accumulation of bloody fluid. 



Fig. 109.— Cyst under Scapula. One week’s duration. 
Due to subscapular osteoma and traumatism. 


ACQUIRED DEFORMITIES 

Displaced Coccyx: Coccygodynia. —Falls upon the base 
of the spine may bend the coccyx backward or forward, or otherwise 
injure it. It may then become the seat of annoying and persistent 
pain, called coccygodynia. The projection forward of the bone 
may interfere with defecation and prevent its easy performance. 

The history given by the patient of a severe fall, followed by 
pain and tenderness which have never entirely disappeared, should 
lead at once to a physical examination. The patient either stands 
or ,lies upon his side with knees drawn up. The surgeon passes 






DISPLACED COCCYX: COCCYGODYNIA 


193 



the well lubricated finger high up into the rectum, the palmar 
surface of the finger being directed backward. The lower part 
of the sacrum and the coccyx can then be grasped between the 
forefinger and the thumb. The size and direction of the coccyx 
and the possible range of motion in the joint between it and the 
sacrum should be noted; also the existence of any tender spots. 

Treatment. —If there is reason to attribute the existing pain 
to the coccyx, or if it is ankylosed or is badly deflected and 
cannot be brought 
into normal relation 
to the sacrum with¬ 
out pain, the coccyx, 
or a portion of it, 
should be removed. 

A two inch median 
incision is sufficient 
for the purpose. 

The patient’s bowels 
should be thorough¬ 
ly emptied on the 
previous day. At 
the . time of opera¬ 
tion the skin in the 
vicinity should be 
thoroughly cleansed, 
but no enema given 
nor rectal examina¬ 
tion made just before 
operation. Either 
local or general an¬ 
esthesia is satisfac¬ 
tory. The incision 

is started at the level Fig. lio. — Removal of a Displaced Coccyx. The 

-Jr wound necessary for its removal has been closed by 

Of the joint between four guture8 _ PhotograpU taken four days after 

sacrum and coccyx operation, and retouched only to make the stitches 

and extended a dis- and wound more prominent. The coccyx is laid on 

the patient s buttock. 






' 


1 


tance of not more 

than two inches toward the a^nus. Skin and fat are divided and 
the coccyx cut down upon. The soft tissues are dissected from it 




194 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


posteriorly and along both sides. The joint between sacrum and 
coccyx is opened and the ligaments divided. If the bones are 
ankylosed they must be separated with bone shears or a chisel. 
The upper end of the coccyx is then seized and pulled backward. 
The soft tissues in front of the coccyx are then pushed and cut 
away from its anterior surface and the bone is withdrawn from 
the wound. In this manner it is easy to avoid wounding even 
the outer coats of the rectum. Bleeding is controlled by pressure 
or ligation, the cavity is obliterated by buried sutures of catgut, 
and the skin is sutured with horsehair or fine black silk (Fig. 110). 
If any drain is employed it should be a small gutta perclia one, 
to be removed in two days. Primary union should be obtained. 
The patient should lie in bed for two days, and should avoid for 
some days longer any sitting or other posture which will tend to 
separate the edges of the wound. 

Hernia. —A hernial sac is a protrusion of a part of the peri¬ 
toneum through an opening in the abdominal wall. In this sac 
there may or may not be found portions of the abdominal organs. 
If they can be “ replaced ” in the abdominal cavity the hernia is 
called “ reducible.” Otherwise it is an “ irreducible ” hernia. 
Such reduction may be impossible on account of altered shape of 
the organs in the sac, its “ contents,” so-called, or on account of ad¬ 
hesions which have formed between the sac and its contents. The 
hernia may become inflamed as a result of traumatism, etc. This 
rarely leads to suppuration. It may produce so much swelling of 
the hernial contents that the blood-vessel^ which supply them are 
occluded, and strangulation results (Strangulated Hernia, p. 198). 

A hernia may exist at birth or develop soon afterward in an 
abnormally weak spot in the abdominal wall. It may also appear 
in later life, either suddenly, following some crush or severe strain, 
or gradually, as the result of oft repeated lesser strains. 

The subject of hernia, and especially its operative treatment, 
is exhaustively discussed in works upon major surgery. Still, the 
general means of correct diagnosis and the ambulant treatment of 
patients who, for one reason or another, cannot be operated upon, 
are here in place. 

General Principles of Diagnosis. —A patient suspected to 
have a hernia should be examined ii^ both standing and recumbent 
postures. 


HERNIA 


195 


Inspection may show variation in size at different times if the 
hernia is reducible. Peristaltic movements are often visible in 
large intestinal hernise. 

Palpation may reveal the presence of intestinal coils, of gurg¬ 
ling gas and fluid, of lumpy omentum, or of pasty fecal masses 
capable of being indented. 

Compression , when the patient is recumbent, may affect the 
reduction of the hernia. 

Percussion will bring out the resonance of intestinal coils con¬ 
taining gas. It will also give a thrill in case the swelling is due 
to a hydrocele or a cold abscess. 

Auscultation may reveal an intestinal gurgle or, in rare cases, 
an aneurysmal thrill. 

An impulse on coughing is obtained in case of most hernise. 
It may also be obtained, though less marked, in case of a large 
varicocele or in case of a hydrocele which extends well up into 
the inguinal canal. 

Reduction of the swelling upon compression or spontaneously 
when the patient lies down is very significant of hernia, but may 
also occur with an imperfectly descended testis or a cold abscess. 

General Principles of Treatment. —Operation for hernia, 
wherever situated, to be successful must accomplish these three 
steps: 1. The reduction of the hernial contents, either before or 
after the sac has been opened. 2. The closure of the peritoneal 
cavity at the normal level. The sac is usually tied at this point, 
its neck, and the surplus removed. 3. The approximation by firm 
sutures of the damaged wall of the abdomen, or at least of its 
strongest part, namely, the deep fascia. The various methods of 
accomplishing these three steps vary in different situations and in 
the hands of different operators. They are fully described in all 
surgical text-books. 

If the condition of the patient and the character of the hernia 
make it probable that the three steps above described can be car¬ 
ried out by operation, and primary union attained, operation 
should be advised. It is, of course, absolutely indicated in case 
of strangulated hernia as a relief of acute symptoms, even under 
circumstances in which a permanent cure of the hernia is not to 
be expected. 

A truss is to be recommended in all other cases of reducible 


196 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


hernia. A patient having an irreducible, inoperable hernia is in¬ 
deed in a bad state. Some of them gain relief by an operation 
which changes the hernia from an irreducible to a reducible one 5 



Fig. 111.—Dorsal Hernia Following Kraske’s Operation for Carcinoma of 
the Rectum. The hernia developing through the gap in the posterior pelvic 
wall caused by the removal of the sacrum, contained the greater part of the 
small intestine and the sigmoid flexure. 

so that a truss can he worn. An unusual type of partly reducible 
hernia is shown in Figure 111. 

r I he symptoms of hernia in different situations vary greatly. 
A brief description is therefore given of each. 

Umbilical Hernia.—Hernia of the umbilicus in the new-born is 
extremely common. The sac is usually small and contains intes¬ 
tine or is empty. This hernia has a strong tendency toward 
recovery, but to facilitate this end it should be constantly kept 
pressed back by means of a cloth-covered, wooden button-mold 
and a short strip of adhesive plaster. This should be changed 
every day or every second day after the infant’s bath, but before 
the old one is removed the new one should be prepared, and in 
the interval the hernia should be pressed back by the nurse’s fin¬ 
ger until the new button is put in place. The plaster should extend 
in a different direction every day so that the skin may not become 
irritated. If treated in this manner the great majority of infan¬ 
tile umbilical herniac can be cured in a few months. 

Umbilical hernia in the adult is especially common in stout 




HERNIA 


197 


persons of middle age. It first appears as a flabby tumor as large 
as the terminal joint of the finger, covered with normal skin. It 
is usually irreducible. Its contents are omentum. As it grows 
the sac becomes more distended; small intestine will often be added 
to the omental contents. This part of the hernia is usually re¬ 
ducible, at least for a considerable period. Such a hernia fre¬ 
quently becomes strangulated. 

A truss is an unsatisfactory appliance for umbilical hernia of 
the adult. An operation should be performed early, if possible 
before intestine is involved. 

Inguinal Hernia.—Inguinal hernia is more common than femo¬ 
ral hernia both in the male (39 to 1) and female (3 to 2) ; or, to 
put it differently, for every 84 inguinal hernias in the male there 
are 8 inguinal hernias in the female, 6 femoral hernias in the 
female, and 2 femoral hernias in the male. It is usually indirect, 
that is to say, the omentum, intestine, etc., which fills its sac leaves 
the abdomen by the normal route of the inguinal canal, and does 
not burst through the posterior wall of the inguinal canal to the 
median side of the epigastric artery (direct inguinal hernia). 

Inguinal hernia may be congenital or acquired, and if acquired 
it may develop suddenly as the result of a crush or strain, or slowly. 

Symptoms. —These symptoms are usually present: normal 
movable skin; underlying tumor giving impulse on coughing, 
growing smaller or disappearing entirely under pressure or on 
lying down; enlarged ring and inguinal canal evident on reduc¬ 
tion of tumor; reduced tumor does not reappear when patient 
stands and coughs if the canal is blocked by the surgeon’s finger; 
no true fluctuation; opacity to transmitted light. 

Possible additional symptoms of intestinal hernia are: reso¬ 
nance on percussion, gurgling on manipulation, indentation of 
doughy fecal masses in large intestine. 

Treatment. —Treatment by operation entails only a slight 
risk, and is generally successful. It should therefore be advised 
in the case of all healthy children and active adults. Treatment 
by truss is advisable for feeble and aged persons and for those 
whose tissues in the inguinal region are so thinned by previous 
unsuccessful operation that they cannot be made to withstand the 
intra-abdominal pressure. 

A truss is a pad held firmly against the lower part of the 



198 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 

inguinal canal to prevent tlie exit of the omentum, etc., from the 
abdominal cavity. It has been well compared to the stopper of a 
bottle. Opinions differ as to the best form of truss. A satisfac¬ 
tory truss is one which, with a minimum of pressure and without 
causing the patient any pain, prevents the hernial contents from 
entering the hernial sac. 

The hernia must he fully reduced before a truss is applied. 
This is best done when the patient lies on his back. A truss 
should never be applied to a hernia which is only partially re¬ 
ducible. It will rarely succeed in keeping hack the rest of the 
hernial contents, and by its pressure on the part already in the 
sac it will cause pain and possibly serious inflammation, or even 
gangrene. 

A truss is rarely needed in case of a very young infant; hut 
before the child is old enough to walk it should be fitted with a 
truss or should he operated upon. Operation is advisable for large 
congenital hernise, as cure is improbable when the neck of the sac 
is so wide. If the tunica vaginalis communicates with the peri¬ 
toneal cavity by a rather narrow passage, and the contents of the 
hernial sac can he reduced into the abdomen without dragging the 
testicle upward, a truss may cure the patient in the course of a 
few years. For this purpose it should he worn constantly day 
and night, as crying no less than walking will force the abdominal 
organs into the hernial sac. As the child grows older the truss 
may he left off at night, and if the neck of the sac becomes oblit¬ 
erated the truss need only he worn during exercise, and finally 
not at all. A cure is sometimes obtained from a truss in adult 
life, hut is far less likely after the patient has attained his growth. 

Femoral Hernia. —In femoral hernia the protrusion of abdom¬ 
inal contents is under Poupart’s ligament and through the femoral 
ring. Such a hernia is usually small, and this fact, added to the 
tortuous course of the canal, sometimes obscures the impulse on 
coughing and renders diagnosis difficult. An enlarged lymphatic 
gland, with which femoral hernia is often confounded, if unilat¬ 
eral has almost always an evident cause in some scratch or cut 
of the foot or leg. 

Femoral hernia should always he treated by operation. 

Strangulated hernia always requires treatment in bed or im¬ 
mediate operation, but most of the patients are seen by a physician 



ASCITES-PARACENTESIS 


199 


while they are still walking about, so that the symptoms should 
be fixed clearly in mind, ready for instant service. They vary 
according to the character of the compressed organ. Omentum 
may become strangulated and give only moderate pain and dis¬ 
ability for days. Large intestine, and even small intestine if only 
a part of the circumference of the bowel is constricted, give the 
same symptoms in a more marked degree, plus vomiting and more 
or less distention. If the lumen of the small intestine is com¬ 
pletely obstructed there is repeated vomiting, becoming brown and 
foul-smelling (“ fecal ”), and absolute stoppage of the bowels even 
for gas. 

The various hernial orifices should be examined in all cases 
of intestinal obstruction. 

Treatment. —Dorsal decubitus, the steady pressure of a pad 
of unbleached cotton and a spica bandage, and the cold of a big 
ice-bag will cause the reduction of many strangulated hernias. 
This treatment should be tried only in the early hours of strangu¬ 
lation, lest one succeed in reducing a loop of intestine already 
gangrenous. In most cases immediate operation is indicated. 

Ascites - Paracentesis. —The causes of simple ascites are 
medical, and its treatment is essentially so, except in one respect, 
namely, paracentesis or the puncture of the abdomen for with¬ 
drawal of the extravasated serum, for the peritoneal cavity may 
become so distended with serum that it is desirable to withdraw 
the whole or a part of the fluid. This slight operation is almost 
free from risk. It is best performed in the following manner: A 
point is selected two or three inches below the umbilicus, either in 
or near the median line, or well to the outer edge of the rectus 
muscle. Thus one chooses the thinner parts of the abdominal wall 
and avoids the large vessels (deep epigastric) which lie beneath 
the outer part of the rectus muscle. In making the puncture one 
naturally avoids any visible veins. The patient should, if possible, 
be in a sitting posture, with the bladder empty. 

After cleansing the skin, the sensation may be dulled by ethyl 
chlorid or by the injection of a few drops of a two per cent solu¬ 
tion of cocain. A trocar and cannula is pushed quickly through 
the abdominal wall. If the peritoneal cavity is so distended with 
fluid that the wall is tense, the puncture is an easy one; if the 
distention is less, one must proceed with more care. It will then 




200 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


be found of advantage to turn the instrument back and forth 
while pushing it forward, exactly as one uses an awl. In either 
case it is well to hold the forefinger against the side of the instru¬ 
ment as a guide to the depth to which it is plunged (Fig. 112). 



Fig. 112.—Method of Holding Trocar and Cannula before Plunging it Through 
the Abdominal Wall. The forefinger acts as a guide to control the depth of 
puncture. A smaller trocar and cannula are also shown. 

The size of the cannula employed varies according to circum¬ 
stances. If the puncture is made merely for diagnostic purposes, 
or if the quantity of fluid to be removed is small, one naturally 
selects a small cannula, possibly as small as Ho. 6 French. If, 
on the other hand, several quarts are to be removed, as is fre¬ 
quently the case in hepatic cirrhosis, one should select an instru¬ 
ment not smaller than 12 or IT French. The elasticity of the 
tissues will invariably close the opening in a short time after the 
cannula is removed. 

When the trocar is withdrawn serous fluid should flow out in 
a stream. If it does not, the end of the cannula has not entered 
the peritoneal cavity, or else it is blocked by omentum or intes¬ 
tine. An attempt should be made to push the cannula further 
inward. If this is impossible its end is not within the peritoneal 
cavity. In this case the trocar should be reinserted in the cannula, 
and the combined instrument pushed further inward, or a new site 
for the puncture may be selected. 




SPINA BIFIDA 


201 


If fluid does not flow, although the cannula can be pushed 
further inward, or if a flow of fluid is suddenly stopped, it is 
evident that something has obstructed the inner end of the can¬ 
nula. This may be overcome by tilting the cannula, or by shift¬ 
ing the position of the patient, or by inserting a stiff wire, first 
sterilized, through the cannula to keep back the obstructing mass. 
Cannulas have been made with lateral openings in order to pre¬ 
vent this annoyance, but it is rarely a troublesome one. 

The risk of wounding intestine or omentum is a very slight 
one. Indeed, this accident can scarcely occur unless there are firm 
adhesions at the point of puncture. In case of repeated puncture 
it is therefore well to select a new site each time. 

Some advise the incision of the skin with a narrow scalpel. 
This makes the puncture easier, but it is an unnecessary precau¬ 
tion unless the trocar is dull. 

Whether all the fluid should be removed at one sitting will 
depend on the general condition of the patient. In the majority 
of instances there is no objection to drawing it all off. 

Should the instrument puncture a vein or an artery in its 
passage through the abdominal wall, hemorrhage may follow the 
withdrawal of the cannula. It usually ceases in a minute or two, 
but if there is any doubt about it a little more cocain should be 
injected, a longitudinal incision made, the wound retracted, and 
the vessel ligated. This can be done without opening the peri¬ 
toneal cavity. 

The risk of infection following paracentesis is slight. It has 
doubtless been performed hundreds of times without any aseptic 
precaution, and yet without bad result; but this is no warrant for 
negligence. When the cannula has been withdrawn the opening 
should be sealed with a little cotton and collodion, or if the serum 
continues to trickle from the wound, a pad of sterile gauze should 
be applied and changed as often as it becomes saturated. 

CONGENITAL DEFORMITY 

Spina Bifida. —The only important congenital deformity of 
the trunk amenable to treatment is spina bifida. (For congenital 
cysts and sinuses, see p. 181.) 

Spina bifida is a failure of development in which the bony 


202 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE TRUNK 


processes of one or more vertebrae are not united posteriorly. This 
defect is most often seen in the lumbar or sacral region. The 
cleft may extend to the surface, in which case the spinal canal 
will be open, or it may be closed by some of the normal structures, 
even though the epidermis is wanting; or it may be entirely cov¬ 
ered with skin. In the marked cases of defect, in which the spinal 
canal is either open at birth or becomes so by ulceration of the 
imperfectly formed soft tissues, infection soon extends into the 
canal, and the child dies of meningitis. In the less marked cases, 
in which there is a firmer posterior wall made up of the mem¬ 
branes of the cord, and possibly an intact skin, there exists an 
accumulation of serous fluid, giving a rounded tumor, which fluc¬ 
tuates on palpation. The cavity of such a cyst may communicate 
with the central canal of the spinal cord, or more often with the 
spaces between the cord and its membranes. If the latter is the 
case, the tumor is a meningocele. In some cases of spina bifida a 
certain amount of paralysis exists, due to developmental defect at 
the affected point of the spine. It should, however, be borne in 
mind that there may be other associated developmental defects 
elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord. 

Spina bifida is amenable to treatment by operation if the de¬ 
fect in the spinal column is not too large. Prognosis is most favor¬ 
able when there is a simple meningocele, with a small internal 
opening. But even in such a case the greatest care must be taken 
to prevent infection of the wound, for this will almost certainly 
lead to death by septic meningitis. Similar care should be exer¬ 
cised in nonoperated cases to prevent ulceration and rupture. The 
child should be kept off of its back, so that the surface of the tumor 
may never become contaminated with urine or feces, and may be 
protected from pressure. Treatment by injection and by ligation 
has been at times successful in curing a spina bifida, but the risks 
and uncertainties are such that their performance at the present 
day is not to be advised. 

If the communication between the cavity of a meningocele and 
that of the spinal column is very small, it may become obliterated 
before birth, so that a solid tumor, composed of fat or fibrous 
tissue, may exist instead of a cystic one. In removing such a 
growth the possibility of opening the spinal canal should be kept 
in mind. 


SECTION IY 


AFFECTIONS OF THE GENITOURINARY 

ORGANS 


CHAPTER VIII 

INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE 
GEN ITO-URI NARY ORGANS 

INJURIES 

Contusion. —Blows upon the penis and testicles are very com¬ 
mon. Owing to the sensitiveness of these structures they produce 
a degree of shock out of proportion to the local evidence of injury. 
The freedom of motion of these parts often saves them from severe 
injury. Swelling, especially of the testicle, may he considerable 
even after a slight injury. Deep injury may result in extensive 
extravasation of blood, with or without rupture of the erectile 
bodies or of the urethra, or it may be accompanied by hemorrhage 
into the tunica vaginalis, known as hematocele; while a still 
deeper injury may cause rupture of the bladder, intraperitoneally 
or extraperitoneally. 

Diagnosis. —The diagnosis of the lighter forms of injury is 
usuallv not difficult. An inspection of the parts supplemented by 
palpation will usually reveal the extent of the trauma. Owing to 
the laxity of the tissues extravasated blood spreads rapidly, while 
edema finds little restraint and may quickly alter the normal ap¬ 
pearance of the penis. The diagnosis of the deeper injuries is 
considered under the separate titles. 

Treatment. —This consists in rest, support of the parts, and 

cooling applications. Compresses wet with a mixture of alcohol 

and water or fluid extract of hamemelis, should be applied and 

kept moist. No impervious substance should be used to cover 

them, as the cooling effect of free evaporation adds greatly to the 

comfort of the patient in most cases. Or the wet compresses may 

be covered with flannel, oil silk, or gutta perclia tissue, and the 

203 






204 INJURIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

dressing kept cold by an ice-bag placed alongside of it. While 
the patient is in bed the testicles should be supported on a folded 
towel placed across the thighs. As soon as he is up the weight of 
a swollen testicle should 'be taken off of the cord by a suspensory 
bandage. If there is subcutaneous hemorrhage which is not con¬ 
trolled by these measures, or if an erectile body has been ruptured, 
an incision should be made and the bleeding vessel secured or the 
fibrous envelope sutured. 

Contusion of the testicle is apt to be followed by pain, more 
noticeable toward night or after exertion. An ointment contain¬ 
ing belladonna or ichthyol should be applied and the testicles sup¬ 
ported by a suspensory bandage. 

Hematoma: Hematocele.— The blood from a ruptured ves¬ 
sel usually spreads quickly throughout the loose subcutaneous tis¬ 
sue. In this manner penis and scrotum may in a short time be¬ 
come a dark garnet or magenta in color. In other cases the blood 
may accumulate in one place and so form a hematoma. This is 
most likely to occur if the ruptured vessel empties into the tunica 
vaginalis. Such a condition is called a hematocele. It may exist 
without any discoloration of the skin. It gives rise to a smooth, 
tense fluctuating swelling, the size and shape of the distended 
tunica vaginalis. Often the swollen testicle is lost in the mass of 
clotted blood so that it cannot be distinguished. A hematocele 
can be differentiated from a hydrocele by its rapid formation, by 
its opacity to transmitted light; from a hernia by its irreducibil- 
ity, by the absence of an impulse on coughing, and by the fact that 
the swelling does not extend into the inguinal canal. 

Treatment. —Extensive hemorrhage in the tissues, if diffuse, 
will take care of itself. If, on the other hand, there is a large 
hematoma, an incision should be made into it and the blood clot 
taken out and the wound closed. The best time for the removal 
of the effused blood by aspiration is a few days after the accident, 
when the cutaneous effects of contusion will have subsided and the 
blood clot will have softened somewhat. If operation is not per¬ 
formed the blood clot will remain for months before it is entirely 
absorbed, even if it does not act as a foreign body and cause necro¬ 
sis of the overlying skin. Such an operation is free from risk if 
asepsis is rigidly observed. The wound may be sealed with a cot¬ 
ton-collodion dressing. 

O o 




PARAPHIMOSIS 


205 


u Fracture ” of the Penis. —A too violent effort in coitus, as 
well as some form of direct violence, may rupture one of the erec¬ 
tile bodies of the engorged penis. The result is the immediate 
escape of blood from the fibrous sheath in which the erector vessels 
are confined, producing a flabby and distorted penis. If there is 
also a wound in the skin the blood may escape externally. 

Treatment. —The non-operative treatment consists in the ap¬ 
plication of cold and a firm bandage. The results are often unsat¬ 
isfactory, as is to be expected, when one considers the amount of 
the effused blood and the structure of the penis itself—so ill 
adapted to a firm bandage. The blood clots are not fully absorbed 
for a long time, scar tissue forms, and the deformity is often per¬ 
manent. 

The modern surgical treatment in these cases is an immediate 
exposure of the ruptured tissues by a longitudinal incision, con¬ 
trol of the hemorrhage by ligature or otherwise, suture of the 
fibrous sheath with fine chromic catgut, and suture of the skin- 
wound with horsehair or fine silk. With reasonable care, wounds 
in the penis heal aseptically. The operation may be performed 
with a local or general anesthetic. The blood supply in the organ 
may be controlled during the operation by an elastic rubber band 
wound around the root of the penis. This will also facilitate local 
anesthesia by limiting the diffusion of the solution employed. 
The rubber bandage should be removed before the skin is sutured 
in order to test the control of deep hemorrhage. 

Paraphimosis. —If a too tight foreskin is fully retracted 
over the corona of the glans, the head of the penis swells so that 
it is difficult to draw the foreskin down over it. The longer the 
condition lasts the more difficult it is to relieve it. Soon the fore¬ 
skin becomes edematous, and this adds to the difficulty of reduc¬ 
tion. The ability to urinate is usually not impaired. 

Treatment. —To reduce a retracted foreskin it should be 
grasped with the thumb and finger of either hand at opposite 
points of its circumference, the thumbs being nearer the glans 
penis and firmly fixed upon the foreskin as close to the corona as 
possible. If the skin is slippery it should first be wiped dry and 
clean. Most of the obstruction to reduction is on the dorsal side 
of the penis, and hence the points at which the foreskin is seized 
should be situated a little more dorsally than ventrally. Steady 



206 INJURIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


tension should now be exerted, the two hands pulling in slightly 
divergent lines in order to assist in relieving the constriction of 
the foreskin over the corona. 

If the efforts at reduction are unsuccessful the surgeon may 
bandage the penis with a thin rubber bandage, and so reduce swell¬ 
ing, or he may use a gauze bandage and saturate it with an astrin¬ 
gent solution and leave it in place a few hours. This treatment 
may so reduce the swelling that the foreskin can be drawn over the 
glans. If the condition of the parts, such as marked congestion 
or threatened gangrene, forbids delay, the foreskin should be di¬ 
vided dorsally by an incision parallel to the long axis of the penis 
(see p. 246). Reduction will then be easy. The operation should 
be completed by suture, but the longitudinal incision should be 
sutured laterally, or a partial or complete circumcision may be 
at once performed. If a tight paraphimosis is left to itself a spon¬ 
taneous reduction may take place or the retracted skin may become 
adherent in its new relations so that reduction is impossible; or it 
may lead to gangrene of either the constricting skin or of the head 
of the penis. 

Neuralgia of Testicle. —Violent coitus may produce neu¬ 
ralgia of the testicle, and even a swelling of the organ, which 
the patient calls a u strain.” It is best treated by a suspensory 
bandage, by the application of cooling lotions, or of belladonna 
or ichthyol ointment, and by the avoidance of sexual excitement 
until the symptoms have disappeared. If the patient is troubled 
with erections during sleep, large doses of bromid of potash should 
be given during the afternoon and evening, and the bowels should 
be thoroughly emptied. In many cases of neuralgia of the testicle 
of sexual origin, relief follows the occasional passage of a steel 
sound through the deep urethra. 

Whenever possible, these patients should be encouraged to take 
up normal sexual life, for frequently and unjustly they mistrust 
their power to enter into a happy marriage. Experience has re¬ 
peatedly shown that all the neuralgic symptoms disappear in a few 
weeks after marriage. 

Foreign Bodies of the Penis and Urethra.— A special 
form of injury of the penis is caused by slipping a ring over the 
end of the organ. The congestion which results swells the glans 
so that it is impossible to remove the ring. This congestion 


FOREIGN BODIES OF THE PENIS AND URETHRA 207 


increases as time goes by and if surgical aid is not sought gan¬ 
grene will follow. But before this occurs the ring may be so 
buried in the edematous skin as to be invisible unless a careful 
examination is made. 

Foreign bodies are also passed up into the urethra for pur¬ 
poses of sexual excitement. They sometimes slip from the grasp 
of the individual and pass wholly within the meatus. 

The symptoms vary according to the nature of the foreign 
body lodged in the urethra. If this is smooth there may be no 
serious symptoms until a calculus forms about it some weeks later, 
or infection of the urethra or bladder may be caused. This is 
more likely to follow the introduction of a sharp object such as a 
pin. If the urethra is torn, the swelling may make urination dif¬ 
ficult or impossible. 

Treatment. —A ring which has been passed over the penis 
should be filed or cut in two places and removed. Usually a thin 
strip of steel can be passed under the ring at some point in its 
circumference in order to protect the penis from the file. 

The extraction of a foreign body from the urethra is often 
extremely difficult. If the body lies near the meatus it may be 
seized and drawn outward by a pair of thin forceps. Before at¬ 
tempting the seizure, firm pressure should be made upon the 
urethra near the base of the penis so as to prevent the foreign 
body from slipping upward into the bladder. If the object is 
sharp-pointed, as a pin, and the point is toward the meatus, it 
may be pushed out through the wall of the urethra and the penis, 
reversed, and pushed back into the urethra, so that the head is 
toward the meatus. The head can then be grasped with forceps 
and the pin extracted. If the foreign body is not sharp-pointed, 
as, for instance, a slate pencil, it may be extracted by pinching the 
urethra firmly above its upper end and crowding the penis upward 
past its lower end. The lower end is then grasped through the 
penis, and traction is made in order to stretch the urethra to its 
fullest extent. While thus stretched the urethra is again pinched 
above the upper end of the slate pencil, and the penis again 
crowded up from below. By this means the foreign body can be 
brought out of the meatus. This method can be easily demon¬ 
strated by slipping a slate pencil into a piece of rubber tubing 
whose caliber is great enough to receive it readily. 


208 INJURIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


If the foreign body cannot be extracted through the meatus, an 
incision should be made directly down upon it to permit of its 
prompt removal. The wound of the urethra should be sutured at 
once, and also the wound of the skin unless infection exists, in 
which case drainage may be advisable. 

Foreign Bodies in Bladder. —A foreign body which finds 
its way into the male bladder, either through the urethra or by 
penetration of the wall of the bladder, usually becomes incrusted 
with urinary salts in a short time. 

The symptoms depend more or less on the nature of the object, 
whether it has sharp angles, etc. They are in general pain, espe¬ 
cially at the end of micturition; vesical irritability, as shown by 
pain when the body is jarred and by frequent micturition; and an 
admixture of blood with the urine, and perhaps the passage of a 
couple of drops of pure blood at the end of the act. The foreign 
body may cause a sudden stoppage of the urinary stream during 
micturition. If a foreign body remains in the bladder for some 
time, the urine may become ammoniacal. The symptoms given 
are also the symptoms of calculus. 

The diagnosis can be made from the symptoms; also by means 
of a short, sharply curved steel sound called a stone searcher; in 
some instances by the X-ray, and in some by the cystoscope. 

Treatment. —The removal of the foreign body is the essential 
of treatment. This usually requires an incision into the bladder. 
The suprapubic route is the method of choice. 

Wounds. —All wounds of the external genitals should be 
treated by thorough cleansing, control of hemorrhage by ligature, 
suture of both superficial and deep structures, and if necessary 
drainage. The tendency of contused wounds to bleed subcutane¬ 
ously is very marked, on account of the free blood-supply and 
lax tissues. All blood clots should be evacuated, and the spaces in 
which they lie should be suitably drained. 

Rupture of Urethra. —This may be complete or partial. It 
is usually due to a fall astraddle of some hard object or to a kick 
in the perineum. By this violence the bulbous urethra is pressed 
against the edge of the pubis and divided. 

The symptoms are pain and swelling at the seat of injury, and 
usually bleeding from the meatus. There will be either inability 
to pass water or painful, dribbling micturition, the urine contain- 


RUPTURE OF URETHRA 


209 


ing blood, or, as is usually the case, the passage of a little urine 
from the meatus and the extravasation of a certain amount of 
urine about the point of rupture. If there is an external wound 
the urine will escape from it. If not, the passage of an olive- 
tipped bougie will usually establish the diagnosis. If the urethra 
is torn clear across the bougie will fail to enter the vesical por¬ 
tion, or if it is only partially torn the rent in the membrane 
may be felt. Sometimes the break may be felt by external pal¬ 
pation. A doubtful diagnosis will usually exist only in those 
instances in which the urethra is divided without the skin being 
broken. 

Treatment. —The treatment for all cases of partial or com¬ 
plete rupture of the urethra is immediate incision and suture. 
Only the simplest cases of rupture of the pendulous portion may 
be left to heal of themselves. If the divided ends are retracted, 
or if a portion of the urethra is so badly bruised that it has to 
be cut away, suture of the urethra is still possible by loosening it 
from its attachments a little distance in both directions. An inch 
of the urethra has been resected and the urethra sutured with com¬ 
plete success. Tor this purpose fine silk should he used, and only 
two or three of the sutures should pass clear through the mucous 
membrane. Unless the wound determines the site of the skin in¬ 
cision, it should be a longitudinal one made in the median line 
of the under surface of the penis. After operation has been com¬ 
pleted, a catheter should be left in the bladder for several days. 
This operation may be easily performed with the aid of a local 
anesthetic. The stitches should be removed in five days or a week 
and the catheter two or three days later. In most instances the 
deeper parts will heal with scarcely any leakage of urine. Should 
this occur the sinus will in a few days close of itself, since, unlike 
the condition when an inflammatory stricture is present, the tend¬ 
ency after traumatism is toward recovery. All silk sutures should 
be so placed that they can be removed, and for this purpose their 
ends should be left long; otherwise plain catgut should be em¬ 
ployed. If, in spite of all precautions, suppuration occurs, the 
catheter must be taken out of the bladder and the wound freely 
drained. After the inflammation has subsided, a second operation 
may be undertaken to close a persisting sinus. If the sinus is a 
large one or traumatic stricture exists, a section of the urethra 



210 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITOURINARY ORGANS 


must be cut away so that clean fresh ends may be obtained for 
suture. 

Rupture of tlie Bladder. —The rupture may be extraperi- 
toneal, but is usually intraperitoneal. In either case the accident 
is a serious one and follows a blow or fall, usually when the blad¬ 
der is full. When it is overdistended a comparatively slight blow 
may rupture it. 

Symptoms. —Rupture of the bladder has some symptoms in 
common with rupture of the urethra; but it may be differentiated 
by the history of the accident, by pelvic pain and shock, by the 
absence of visual injury in the perineum or along the penis, by the 
fact that blood in the urine is thoroughly mixed with it and does 
not appear simply at the beginning or the end of the urinary 
act, and possibly by the complete absence of urine, even after the 
passage of a catheter. Unless stricture is present there will be no 
difficulty in passing a catheter into a ruptured bladder. Extrava¬ 
sation of urine into the deeper parts of the pelvis, or its discharge 
into the peritoneal cavity, will also cause symptoms which will 
assist in the diagnosis of the injury. 

Treatment.— An immediate suprapubic cystotomy is the best 
form of treatment. In many cases this must be combined with a 
laparotomy. 

Rupture of the bladder should be considered a possible com¬ 
plication in all cases of fracture of the pelvis. 


INFLAMMATIONS 

Burns. Burns of the external genitals may be of the usual 
kind, or they may be due to the application of too strong ointments 
or lotions. The symptoms and treatment are those of burns else¬ 
where in the body (see p. 26). On account of the great loose¬ 
ness of the skin and the relative firmness of the deep fascia of 
these parts, the edema resulting from even a slight burn may 
produce great distortion ( Mg. 113). Such an edema is, of course, 
wholly temporary, and the patient should be so assured. . 

Simple Balanitis. Ibis is an inflammation of the mucous 
membrane covering the head of the penis, and the inner layer of 
the prepuce. It is common in cases of long prepuce, especially 
if the foreskin cannot be retracted. Under such circumstances the 


HERPES OF THE PENIS 


211 


secretions about the corona remain in a moist condition and un¬ 
dergo fermentations. Erosion of the delicate epithelial layers 
results, with foul smelling discharge. Diabetics are especially sub¬ 
ject to irritations of the foreskin. 

Treatment. —Cleanliness, the application of a powder, such 
as stearate of zinc, or the application of a bland ointment such as 
cold cream, will heal the simplest cases. The apposed surfaces 
may be kept apart by a wisp of cotton moistened with a dilute 
antiseptic. If the foreskin 
cannot be retracted, or if 
it is very long, so that the 
head of the (adult) penis 
is completely covered, cir¬ 
cumcision should be per¬ 
formed. The resulting ex¬ 
posure of the corona will 
stimulate the growth of a 
tougher epithelium, and 
will dry the secretions 
more rapidly. In operat¬ 
ing upon diabetics, one 
should remember the possi¬ 
bility of a failure to ob¬ 
tain primary union. 

Herpes of the Penis. 

—The glans. penis and the 
inner layer of the prepuce 
may break out with the 

characteristic groups of vesicles by which herpes is known in all 
portions of the body. In the case of the penis, however, the 
apposition of the two epithelial layers leads to the speedy macera¬ 
tion of the vesicles, so that if the patient is not promptly seen, 
only shallow ulcers may be found, together with more or less gen¬ 
eral inflammation. 



Fig. 113.— Edema of the Penis and Scro¬ 
tum in Burn due to the Application of 
Mercuric Ointment. 


The treatment is similar to that advocated for balanitis. The 
apposed surfaces should be kept apart by a wisp of cotton or a 
layer of gauze moistened with some mild antiseptic, such as a 
dilute silver solution, or a drying powder may be employed, or a 
simple ointment. The parts should be frequently cleansed with 
16 



212 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


hot saline solution to prevent irritation from accumulated secre¬ 
tion. If the digestion of the patient is faulty, it should be cor¬ 
rected. 

Simple Urethritis. —Inflammation of the mucous mem¬ 
brane of the urethra, not due to the gonococcus, may follow trau¬ 
matism, such as the use of sounds, or excessive or unclean coitus, 
or the ingestion of drugs which, passing out through the kidneys, 
may irritate the urethra, etc. The symptoms are those of catarrh 
of mucous membrane everywhere—namely, swelling, tenderness, 
redness, and an increase in the mucous secretion, which in some 
cases may be purulent. Micro-organisms may be found in the dis¬ 
charge, but they will not be gonococci. The lack of exposure to 
gonococcus infection, the absence of gonococci from the discharge, 
and the quick disappearance of symptoms, serve to differentiate 
simple urethritis from gonorrhea. 

Treatment. —With the removal of the cause of irritation and 
dilution of the urine, the inflammation quickly subsides; usually 
in less than a w r eek. The patient should drink as many as four 

large glasses of water, 
preferably hot, and 
taken an hour before 
meals and at bedtime. 
Sweet spirits of niter, 
or acetate of potash, 
or some other dh 
uretic should be given 
to reduce the acidity 
of the urine. 

Abscess. —Most 
of the infections of 
the external genitals 
are of a venereal 
character, due to the 
organisms of gonor¬ 
rhea, chancroid, or 
syphilis. Cellulitis 
and abscess due to the 

Fig. 114. —Abscess of Scrotum of Five Days’ RSUal pyogenic organ- 
Duration. Patient aged twenty-five. isms do OCCUl’, how- 






SPECIFIC URETHRITIS, OR GONORRHEA 


213 


ever, both in the penis and in the scrotum. A case of the latter 
character is shown in Figure 114. The symptoms and treatment 
are similar to those of abscess in other parts of the body. 

Specific Urethritis, or Gonorrhea. —Gonorrhea as com¬ 
monly seen is an acute inflammation of the anterior urethra due 
to the presence of a specific microbe called the gonococcus. Ac¬ 
cording to the best authorities it can be obtained only by contact 
with a person who has recently suffered from it, or with some of 
the discharges from such a person. In most cases it requires from 
two to four days for the germ to develop in the epithelium after 
its introduction into the urethra. After this interval free from 
symptoms, there is noticed an itching or burning, or pain greatly 
increased during micturition and during an erection, and a puru¬ 
lent discharge. The mucous membrane swells, and often pouts 
from the meatus. The inguinal glands swell and become tender, 
but rarely suppurate. These symptoms continue for two or three 
weeks and slowly subside. 

Treatment. —The varieties of treatment advocated for this 
very common trouble are numerous indeed. None of them is 
able to cut short to any great extent the average duration of the 
disease. The discharge continues usually about six weeks. It is 
noticeable, however, that in succeeding attacks the disease pursues 
a briefer and milder course. As is the case in most acute inflam¬ 
mations, very hot water is grateful to the patient, who should soak 
his penis once or twice a day in a large tumbler filled with water 
as hot as he is able to bear it, with the idea of relieving the mucous 
membrane from the irritation of its own discharges, as well as in 
the hope of sterilizing the urethra and thus cutting short the attack. 
Many specialists upon genito-urinary diseases have advocated the 
use of irrigation. For this purpose a blunt pointed nozzle is pro¬ 
vided which contains two openings side by side. With each of 
these a tube is connected, one coming from the reservoir of irri¬ 
gating fluid, the other leading to a waste pail. The nozzle should 
distend the meatus so as to prevent the escape of fluid around it. 
Irrigation may be carried out by allowing the stream to flow con- 
• tinuously or by occasionally stopping the outflow in order slightly 
to distend the penis before the fluid flows out of it. Mild anti¬ 
septic solutions can be used for this purpose; permanganate of 
potash in water, 1 part to 2,000, is one of the favorites. 



214 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


It has been claimed that injections and irrigations have a tend¬ 
ency to spread the gonorrhea to the prostate, bladder, or testicles, 
but without injections of any sort being made these secondary in¬ 
flammations often develop, so that an injection in which no undue 
pressure is employed probably does not spread the disease to deeper 
parts. Nature has provided an irrigation for the urethra in the 
flow of urine through it at frequent intervals, so that the irriga¬ 
tions above described are not as necessary as they otherwise 
would be. 

The urine should he kept bland by causing the patient to drink 
large quantities of water, milk, weak tea, lemonade, etc. If it is 
desirable to reduce acidity still further, acetate of potash, ten 
grains every four hours, or some other diuretic may he given. 

Rest is another essential of treatment. The patient should lie 
down as much as possible, and should avoid exercise, tobacco, alco¬ 
hol, and sexual excitement of any kind. If troubled during sleep 
with erections of the penis, the patient should take during the 
afternoon and evening thirty or forty grains of potassium bromid. 
Constipation should be prevented, and the diet should be a simple 
one. Such are the general principles of the treatment of acute 
gonorrhea upon which all writers agree. 

The specific treatment, that is, treatment which has in view 
the cure of the disease by the use of drugs, is by some writers 
asserted to be useless; most specialists, however, administer drugs 
by the mouth or in injections into the urethra, or by both of these 
methods. The drugs given internally are chiefly copaiba, cubebs, 
sandalwood oil, and salol. These are all substances which are 
rapidly excreted by the kidneys, and give to the urine an aromatic 
odor and a certain degree of disinfecting power. A good prescrip¬ 
tion is as follows: 

R Salol, 

Oleoresin cubeb, 


Balsam copaibae. gr. viij; 

Pepsin . gr. j. 


One or two capsules, each containing the above, should be given 
after each meal. 

The other method of administering drugs—namely, that of in¬ 
jecting solutions into the urethra—opens a wide field for experi- 


aa 


gr. iv ; 





SPECIFIC URETHRITIS, OR GONORRHEA 


215 


mentation. Astringents of every sort, and most of the old and 
new disinfectants, have been repeatedly used for this purpose. 
Their efficacy in limiting an acute gonorrhea is open to grave 
doubt, though the astringent solutions are of undoubted benefit 
in the later stages of the disease when the purulent secretion has 
changed to a thin mucous secretion. The following solution is 


often employed: 

1 > Argyrol. oiv; 

Aquae destil. oviij. 


Sig.: Use locally after urination. 

Or at a later stage, when the discharge becomes muco-purulent, 


the following mixture: 

B Zinc, sulphat. gr. xv; 

Plumhi acetatis . gr. xx; 

Tinct. opii, ) __ *.• 

1 ’ [ aa. oij ; 

Tinct. catechu, ) 

Aquae ad . 5 vj. 


M. Sig.: To he injected after urination. 

Complications. —The prostate, bladder, and testicle may all 
take part in the gonorrheal inflammation. It requires usually two 
or three weeks for the disease to spread to these localities, hut 
when it has done so the same symptoms of heavy pain, heat, swell¬ 
ing, and tenderness to touch are present in these different locali¬ 
ties, and the patient has the constitutional symptom of fever of 
100°—102° Y. If the bladder is affected, micturition is frequent 
and urgent, extremely painful, and is often followed by the pas¬ 
sage of small quantities of blood. Blood may also be mixed with 
the urine. Inflammation is situated in the neck of the bladder 
as well as in the prostate, and most of the pain is referred to the 
base of the penis and to the perineum. Large doses of alkaline 
diluents, local application of heat in the form of hot compresses, 
or a hot sitz-batli and irrigation of the rectum with hot water, or 
heat applied through a closed rectal tube, will all relieve the pa¬ 
tient somewhat, but for a few days morphin will probably be 
required, and may be administered by the mouth or subcutane¬ 
ously or by rectal suppositories. If the inflammation does not 
subside in a few days the bladder should be irrigated daily through 








216 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


a soft rubber catheter with hot saturated solution of boric acid, 
or with very weak solutions of nitrate of silver (1: 4,000) at the 
beginning, or a solution of protargol (1: 2,000). 

If the disease extends to the testicles it usually attacks only 
one of them at a time, and involves chiefly the epididymis. This 
swells rapidly until it is several times the normal size, and is 
exquisitely painful and tender. Rest in bed, support of the tes¬ 
ticle by folded towels placed upon the thighs, and the application 
of pounded ice or hot, moist compresses kept hot by a hot water 
bottle, will suffice to relieve the pain in a few days. Painting the 
overlying skin with a mixture of equal parts of guaiacol and olive 
oil will also relieve pain. Often the swelling persists for weeks, 
and the testicle should be carried in a suspensory bandage for a 
long time after the patient is up. Its return to the normal size 
can be hastened by the application of a mixture of mercurial and 
belladonna ointment. 

Chronic Gonorrhea: Posterior Urethritis. —By the 

treatment described, or even without treatment, the discharge 
in acute gonorrhea usually ceases in about six weeks. Occasion- 
ally, however, some few symptoms of the disease remain—a little 
pain after urination, an occasional drop of clear mucus sufficient 
to keep the meatus moist and to disturb the mind of the patient, 
or a few shreds in the urine. The disease has passed into a chronic 
state and is known as chronic urethritis or gleet. In such a form 
it resists treatment most persistently. This is due sometimes to 
irregularities in the urethral canal, either natural or the result of 
the inflammation. Behind a small meatus there may be a little 
pouch in which the inflammation continues, and lights up from 
time to time after any slight irritation. Or there may be a stric¬ 
ture at any point in the urethra behind which the inflammation 
keeps up. Such a stricture is due to the contraction of scar tissue, 
which occurs everywhere in the body where healing has followed 
severe inflammation or loss of tissue. The persistence of the in¬ 
flammation may also be due to the fact that the gonococci have 
lodged in the prostatic ducts. Tn these narrow passages they are 
with difficulty reached by injections, and are not affected by the 
flow of urine. 

Treatment.— A narrow meatus or a stricture should be di¬ 
vided. If posterior urethritis exists the most successful treatment 



STRICTURE OF URETHRA 


217 


is the injection of a few drops of a strong solution of nitrate of 
silver by means of a deep urethral syringe. The solution first 
injected may have a strength of one per cent; later, if necessary, 
stronger solutions may he employed. The instrument should be 
passed into the membranous urethra, i. e., about six inches from 
the meatus, before the fluid is injected. The injections should be 
repeated every two or three days. The effect of the treatment is 
heightened if the prostatic ducts be emptied once or twice a week 
by digital pressure applied to the prostate gland through the 
rectum. 

Stricture of Urethra. —This is a cicatricial narrowing of 
the canal, usually due to scar formation after gonorrhea. If the 
caliber is only slightly reduced, the symptoms are not severe. 
There is slight discomfort on urination, and the stream is irregular 
or interrupted. There may be a discharge of a few drops of clear 
mucus at times. If the stricture is very tight, the patient is con¬ 
stantly exposed to a complete obstruction (see Retention, p. 219). 

Treatment. —The aim of treatment is to make and keep the 
caliber of the urethra sufficiently large, and also uniform, so that 
pouches may be done away with. A narrow meatus should be di¬ 
vided downward by a blunt pointed knife, after a little cocain 
has been injected hypodermically. When this has been done the 
urethra should be carefully examined with olive tipped bougies 
or with a urethrometer. These instruments should be sterilized 
and lubricated with a sterile medium such as boiled olive oil, or one 
of the manufactured preparations containing sea-moss. These are 
soluble in water, and in their other physical properties closely re¬ 
semble mucus. The meatus having been cleansed, the head of the 
penis is grasped lightly, and a small bougie is passed slowly in¬ 
ward until its point meets an obstruction or reaches the membra¬ 
nous portion of the urethra. If no obstruction is found, larger 
and larger sizes are employed until the limit of that particular 
urethra has been reached. 

If a stricture is present it may be dilated gradually or imme¬ 
diately, or it may be divided with special cutting instruments. 
All of these forms of treatment have often been carried out in the 
surgeon’s office or in the dispensary, but sudden dilatation or 
divulsion, as it is called, is uncertain and is not now in vogue. 
Division of the stricture with a cutting instrument (internal ure- 



218 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


throtomy) is not without danger. There is some risk of hemor¬ 
rhage, hut this is usually controlled without difficulty. A greater 
risk is due to the severe nervous symptoms which sometimes fol¬ 
low even a slight insult to the urethra. 

The choice between gradual dilatation and division of a stric¬ 
ture depends somewhat upon the condition of the patient and his 
circumstances, as well as upon the character of the stricture. If 
the latter is elastic, of not too small caliber, and gives only mod¬ 
erate symptoms, most surgeons are content with gradual dilata¬ 
tion. This should he carried on under strict aseptic precautions, 
steel sounds (Fig. 115) being passed every two or three days if 



Fig. 115. A Good Type of Steel Sound. The shaft is smaller than the shoulder 
and does not therefore drag the meatus. It should be held as lightly as a pencil. 

the urethra does not react too violently. Later when a full sized 
sound is easily passed, the treatment may be performed only once 
in a week or two. The sound should be held as lightly as a pencil 
between the tips of the thumb and fingers. 

If the passage of the sound is too painful, a few drops of a 
one per cent solution of cocain may be injected into the urethra. 
A strong solution of cocain should never be used for this purpose, 
as death from absorption has more than once occurred. On each 
occasion two or three sounds, each one a little larger than the 
preceding one, may be passed; but it is well to begin each time 
with a sound one or two numbers smaller (French scale) than the 
largest one passed at the previous treatment. This gives the pa¬ 
tient confidence at the start, and reminds the surgeon of the par¬ 
ticular curves of the patient’s urethra. The permanent cure of a 
stricture is often a matter of several months. 

Internal urethrotomy is not properly a minor surgical opera- 





RETENTION OF URINE 


219 


tion, and need not be considered in detail. Suffice it to say that 
after the stricture is cut the caliber of the urethra should be at 
once tested by the passage of a full sized sound. This should 
be repeated again in four or five days, and every few days there¬ 
after for a month or so. 

Retention of Urine. —If a stricture of the urethra is very 
tight, admitting only the smallest instruments (Ho. 6 French or 
less), the symptoms mentioned above are more pronounced and 
at any time an acute swelling of the mucous membrane about the 
stricture may shut off the passage entirely. When this occurs, 
there is a complete retention of urine, one of the most painful con¬ 
ditions which can possibly be experienced. Sometimes the strain¬ 
ing bladder may force a little urine past the stricture, but without 
much relief of the symptoms of retention. There will then be a 
constant dribbling sufficient to keep the patient alive, but not to 
relieve him of his agony. This condition of affairs requires imme¬ 
diate treatment. 

Although stricture is the commonest cause of retention of 
urine, it is w T ell to bear in mind that it may be due to a number 
of other causes, such as enlargement of the prostate gland, a con¬ 
dition not usually found before middle life; or a stone in the blad¬ 
der; or injury to the deep urethra or the bladder; or a tumor; or 
it may follow exposure to cold in persons of delicate constitution; 
or accompany lesions of the spinal cord. The history of the pa¬ 
tient, together with the facts elicited by examination, should 
enable the surgeon to make a correct diagnosis in most cases. The 
necessity for immediate relief is equally great, whatever the cause 
of the retention. 

Treatment.— The simplest measures should first be tried. 
Sometimes, to the great relief of patient and surgeon, a medium 
sized soft rubber catheter, if well lubricated and steadily pressed 
against the obstruction, will after a few minutes pass the stricture 
and bring the desired relief. When the bladder has been emptied, 
or partially emptied if its distention has been very great, and the 
patient has been put to bed on a light diet and his bow-els moved, 
the power to empty the bladder voluntarily often returns; but 
should subsequent catheterization be necessary, it is usually easily 
performed. When acute symptoms have passed over, the stric¬ 
ture should be appropriately treated. 



220 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


If a soft catheter cannot be passed, success may follow the use 
of a silver instrument, although more often the point is pushed 
through the mucous membrane and burrows outside of the urethra 
without reaching the bladder. 

The bladder itself may he aspirated by means of a fine trocar 
and cannula inserted just above the pubes. As the greatly dis¬ 
tended bladder has lifted the peritoneal reduplication, there is 
no danger that the instrument will enter the peritoneal cavity. 
When the bladder has been thoroughly emptied, catheterization or 
normal urination may become possible. 

In more severe cases of retention three methods of radical re¬ 
lief are available: namely, suprapubic cystotomy, internal ure¬ 
throtomy, and external urethrotomy. The objection to the first, 
if the retention is due to stricture, is that it does not relieve the 
cause of the retention. The second is only possible in case a fili¬ 
form bougie can he passed into the bladder. If this can be done, 
usually enough urine will escape around it to relieve very mate¬ 
rially the patient’s condition, and after a few hours the stricture 
will dilate sufficiently to allow the passage alongside of the fili¬ 
form of the guide to Maisonneuve’s instrument for internal ure¬ 
throtomy, or with the filiform alone in position an external ure¬ 
throtomy may be performed. This is a comparatively easy oper¬ 
ation under the circumstances. If, however, no guide can be 
passed into the bladder, the external urethrotomy may be ex¬ 
tremely difficult, since the finding of the urethra beyond the 
stricture may tax the surgeon’s ability to the utmost. The details 
of these operations are found in all good surgical text-books. 

Incontinence of Urine. —Dribbling of urine from an over¬ 
full bladder is really a symptom of retention, although it is gen¬ 
erally spoken of as incontinence. True incontinence, or the in¬ 
ability of the bladder to retain the usual amount of urine, may 
be due to disease of the bladder itself or to some alteration in its 
nervous control. An example of the latter is the incontinence of 
childhood. 

Incontinence of Childhood.—This is seen in both sexes, and 
may be diurnal or nocturnal, though the latter is more common. 
It is a continuation of an infantile condition, but parents do not 
usually pay much attention to it until the child is five or six years 
old. It varies greatly in degree, some children wetting the bed 



INCONTINENCE OF URINE 


221 


every niglit or twice a night, others being affected occasionally. 
The children who are affected in the daytime are seized with a 
desire to urinate and cannot retain the urine long enough to get 
to a closet. 

Treatment. —The urine should he examined, the daily quan¬ 
tity determined, and the maximum capacity of the bladder ascer¬ 
tained. Acid urine should he rendered bland. The possibility 
of vesical calculus should not he overlooked. 

The general health and habits should be attended to. One little 
girl showed marked improvement as soon as she gave up jump¬ 
ing rope. 

The intelligent cooperation of the child should he obtained. 
Usually the child has been scolded and punished until it is filled 
with fright and shame at the mere thought of urination. This is, 
of course, an unfavorable attitude of mind and should be changed 
as quickly as possible. To give the child a correct view of the 
functions of its bladder and of the possibility of strengthening 
them by exercise and by voluntary retention of urine after the 
desire is first noticed, will at once gain its sympathy and assist¬ 
ance. The amount of urine passed at one time and the length of 
intervals between urination should be graphically shown by a meas¬ 
uring glass and a record. 

The patient should not drink freely in the evening and should 
retire with an empty rectum as well as bladder. The clothing 
should he light. Constipation should be relieved. A long fore¬ 
skin should he removed by circumcision. In every case, male or 
female, a careful physical examination should he made. Some¬ 
times seat worms are an exciting cause. 

Belladonna, quinin, and some other drugs may he tried. Many 
cures have been reported following their use. 

In obstinate cases a small steel urethral sound should he passed 

twice a week. 

There is always a tendency toward recovery with the growth 
of the child. 

Incontinence of Old Age.—This is chiefly found in women who 
have borne children and who have a laxity of the perineum and 
of the vaginal walls. Combined with this decrease in mechanical 
support of the bladder there is also a decrease in muscular power 
of the sphincter. The result is the inability to retain more than 


222 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


a few ounces of urine, so that it escapes upon coughing or motions 
which increase the intra-abdominal pressure. In other cases a 
urethral polyp or caruncle may he at fault. 

Relief is to he looked for in operations which restore the in¬ 
tegrity of the pelvic floor. Sometimes a pessary, hy preventing 
displacement or prolapse of the uterus, will render good service. 
Abnormally acid or alkaline urine should he brought to a normal 
reaction. Urethral polyp or caruncle should he removed hy opera¬ 
tion (see p. 270). 

Catheterization. —A few words upon the best way to per¬ 
form this simple act may not he out of place in this connection. 
It is practically impossible to sterilize the meatus and urethra, so 
that patients whose condition requires catheterization for months 
or years usually succumb to infection of the bladder and kidneys. 
Nevertheless, the advantages of cleanliness are here very marked. 
Rubber catheters should be boiled or scalded with boiling water 
after being used, and kept in weak antiseptic solutions until 
wanted. They should then be rinsed with boiled water and lubri¬ 
cated with a sterile medium. The meatus of the patient, as well 
as the hands of the catheterizer, should be carefully disinfected. 
In fact, it is better to use rubber gloves, which can be readily dis¬ 
infected by boiling. As gloves for this purpose need not be very 
thin, they will last a good while. As soon as a rubber catheter 
loses its smooth surface it should be replaced by a new one. 

When one calls to mind the fact that men have catheterized 
themselves for years, carrying a rubber catheter around in the 
vest pocket, and perhaps never washing it, and have still escaped 
infection, such precautions as have been above described may seem 
unnecessary. They are not so, however, and while some persons 
possess great power of resistance to disease germs, others fall an 
easy prey, and should be protected as far as possible. 

Eczema. —The external genitals, both penis and scrotum, are 
favorite sites for eczema (Fig. 116). This condition is often due 
to or aggravated by uncleanliness or the larger or smaller parasites 
(scabies). 

Chancroid. —A chancroid is a small ulcer appearing on the 
head of the penis, or foreskin, or possibly on the skin of the penis 
or scrotum, or even of the thigh. It is due to infection bv direct 
contact with a virulent venereal discharge. Presumably some 



CHANCROID 


223 


slight break in the skin allows the poison to gain a foothold. Such 
a lesion makes its appearance within a day or two after inocula¬ 
tion. It usually grows larger for several days, and may encircle 
the penis and eat away a considerable portion of its substance; 
hut such rapid destruction is uncommon and the typical ulcer has 
the diameter of a quarter or half an inch. There may be more 
than one ulcer, either because the skin has been inoculated in more 



Fig. 116.—Eczema of the Penis of Four Months’ Duration. 


than one spot or because of autoinoculation from point to point. 
This explains the occurrence of ulcers upon the scrotum or thighs. 
The ulcers are usually shallow, not extending below the cutaneous 
layer. There is a certain amount of surrounding inflammation, 
and often lymphangitis and lymphadenitis; the vessels leading 
to one or both groins carrying the infection into the inguinal 
glands (inguinal adenitis or bubo). The lesions in both skin 
and glands are painful, and there is the constitutional disturbance 




224 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


always seen in the presence of acute infection. The primary 
sore, unless some caustic has been applied to it, lacks the sur¬ 
rounding induration of a primary syphilitic lesion. If the chan¬ 
croidal ulcer has been cauterized a differential diagnosis is more 
difficult. 

Treatment.— A chancroid is best treated by a local hot bath 
two or three times daily, followed by careful cleansing with an 
antisejDtic solution, such as peroxid of hydrogen diluted with four 
parts of water. Absorbent cotton, wet with a solution of zinc sul¬ 
phate 1 to 60, or some other lotion, may either be held in place by 
drawing the foreskin over it or by a bandage. In the latter case 
the dressing should be moistened, without removing it, every hour 
or two to facilitate discharge. Surrounding skin should be pro¬ 
tected against contamination and the patient advised of the high 
degree, of infectiousness of the discharge. By this treatment pain 
will be much relieved, the ulcer will soon take on a healthy appear¬ 
ance and will heal in two or more weeks, according to its size and 
the condition of the patient. The use of strong caustics is never 
advisable. Excision of the lesion and suture of the wound often 
fails to give primary union. 

Treatment of Bubo. —The inguinal glands, if moderately 
inflamed, may be treated by counter-irritants; e. g., equal parts of 
belladonna ointment and an ointment containing ichthyol 5j to 
vaseline oj- This is more likely to succeed in glands swollen from 
non-venereal causes. If pain and swelling are severe the patient 
should go to bed and apply an ice-bag or hot moist compresses to the 
groin. If the glands suppurate, as they usually do, the individual 
abscesses may be opened or the glands entirely dissected away. If 
the abscesses are simply incised and drained, the patient will re¬ 
quire to be dressed for several weeks, but he will be able to go about 
without much discomfort. Complete removal of the glands seems 
a formidable procedure, but in about one-half of the patients so 
operated upon primary union of the parts may be obtained. This 
enables the patient to go home, entirely well, after ten days or two 
weeks of hospital treatment. If primary union is not obtained, 
the time of healing is probably no longer than would have been the 
case had a simple incision been made. According to the writer’s 
experience, primary union may be reasonably expected if the skin 
overlying the glands is not affected. If, however, there are minute 


SYPHILIS 


225 


abscesses in the roots of the pubic hairs, primary union need not 
be hoped for. 

Syphilis .—A chancre is the primary lesion of syphilis and 
may occur anywhere upon the surface of the body. Since it is 
contracted by direct contact with another individual suffering from 
syphilis in an acute stage, the primary lesion in the male is usu¬ 
ally found at the meatus or upon the head of the penis or in the 
more delicate part of the foreskin just behind the corona; but it 
may also arise in the tougher skin of the penile body (Fig. Ilf). 
It is noticed, in most cases, ten days or two weeks after infec¬ 
tion. In some cases an in¬ 
terval of four weeks or more 
elapses. The lesion is then 
a small indurated nodule in 
the skin, with only a slight 
loss of epithelial covering. 

The ulcer increases some¬ 
what in size in the ensuing 
weeks, but if uncomplicated 
it never grows very large and 
is not very painful. It heals 

slowlv and the induration 
•/ 

lasts for many weeks after 
the ulcer has completely cica¬ 
trized. This is one of the 
chief points in the differen¬ 
tial diagnosis between a chan¬ 
croid and a chancre. The in-, 
guinal glands are usually 
somewhat enlarged, but they 
are not as tender as they are in connection with a chancroid, nor 
do they suppurate. 

Treatment. —An uncomplicated chancre needs little treat¬ 
ment; it may be dusted with calomel or covered with mercurial 
ointment or some simple ointment. Constitutional treatment 
ought to be withheld until the diagnosis is obsolutely certain, 
that is, until the micro-organism has been demonstrated in the 
serum from the lesion (spirocheta pallida) or a positive Wasser- 
mann reaction is present or secondary manifestations of syphilis 



Fig. 117. —Primary Lesions of Syphilis 
in a Patient Aged Seventy-four 
Years. Diagnosis made from micro¬ 
scopical examination confirmed by sub¬ 
sequently obtained history. 




226 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINAIIY ORGANS 


have appeared. Resection of the chancre has been practised 
in the hope of preventing the syphilitic infection from gaining 
access to the body; but such treatment does not achieve this result 
for the obvious reason that the syphilitic virus has plenty of time 
to be absorbed before the surgeon has an opportunity to remove 
the primary sore. The constitutional treatment is all-important 
(see p. 61). 

Mixed Infection.—A chancroid and chancre may be combined, 
that is, both sorts of infection may enter the body at the same 
point. In this case the lesion will present the hardness of the 
chancre and the acute virulence of the chancroid, and the inguinal 
glands may or may not suppurate. An ulcer of this mixed char¬ 
acter is much more difficult to heal than a simple chancroid, and 
it may eat away a considerable portion of the head of the penis 
before its processes can be stopped. A patient in this condition 
requires all the help which can be obtained from the best hygienic 
surroundings and food. The local treatment is substantially that 
indicated for a chancroid. The healing process is slow, and it may 
be advisable to change from one kind of dressing to another, as 
the stimulating effect of any one application grows less with its 
continued use. These mixed infections are often puzzles in diag¬ 
nosis until secondary syphilitic lesions appear. Previous to that 
time it may be impossible to say whether the induration is due 
to the virulence of the infection or to the coexistence of syphilis. 
If the spirochetse can be demonstrated in the discharge the ques¬ 
tion is at once settled. 

Secondary Lesions: Mucous Patches.—The usual papular lesions 
may appear on the penis and scrotum. If they are so situated as 
to be kept constantly moist by the apposition of cutaneous surfaces 
they may take on the characteristics of a mucous patch with a sur¬ 
face covered with a grayish, foul membrane, and possibly with 
hypertrophy of the base, giving a papillary form to the growth. 
Such lesions are much commoner upon the female genitals and 
about the anus. (See Pig. 131, p. 268, and Fig. 140, p. 300.) 

Syphilitic Orchitis.—One form of late syphilitic lesion is the 
involvement of one or both testicles—syphilitic orchitis (Fig. 118). 
This may take place a few months after the primary lesion, or at 
any time afterward up to many years. The only early subjective 
symptom is a feeling of w r eight or dull pain in the slowly enlarg- 


SYPHILIS 


227 


ing testicle. This when examined is found to be uniformly indu¬ 
rated and enlarged. The enlargement involves chiefly the orchis, 
and the relatively small epididymis can usually be felt as a flat 
appendage at the rear. This is the common type of syphilitic 



Fig. 118.—Unilateral Syphilitic Orchitis. Duration, six weeks. Patient aged 

sixty-eight years. 


orchitis, though occasionally the process is much more acute, and 
therefore painful; or distinct gummata may he noticeable from 
the beginning, giving the swelling a nodular character and prob¬ 
ably leading to involvement of the skin and slough (Tig. 119). 
Similar gumma and ulceration may occur in the penis. 

Syphilitic orchitis is a very slow process, both in its develop¬ 
ment and in its disappearance. It has one of three outcomes. It 
may entirely resolve, leaving the testicle as before. It may lead 
to atrophy of the testicle. It may ulcerate, and ultimately heal 
with more or less loss of testicular tissue and resulting scar for- 





228 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


mation. In this third form it is difficult to distinguish it from 
tuberculosis. 

In the early stage of these two diseases the difference in loca¬ 
tion can usually he made out, syphilis affecting the orchis and 
tuberculosis beginning in the epididymis. In the later ulcerating 
stage this distinction may be impossible, because the swelling has 
so altered normal relations and because of the extension of the 
inflammation beyond its original site. 

Another distinguishing mark of tuberculosis is the presence in 
most cases of several hard nodules due to separate foci of infec¬ 
tion. Such are wanting in syphilis. If the tubercular nodules 
exist also in the vas deferens, the diagnosis is at once clear. 



Fig. 119. — Syphilis of Testicle. Duration eight weeks. Ulceration through the 
skin of four days’ duration: patient aged twenty-eight years. 

Tuberculosis breaks down more promptly than a gumma, dis¬ 
charges more pus, tends to form flabby granulations, and has less 
wide-spread induration about a single center of infection. 

Syphilis of the testicle must also be differentiated from malig¬ 
nant disease—either carcinoma or sarcoma. A malignant growth 
increases rapidly in size, is softer, produces great dilation of the 
blood-vessels, superficial and otherwise, involves the skin of the 
scrotum, and often breaks down, forming a gangrenous ulcer. 




TUBERCULOSIS 


229 


Treatment. —The patient should wear a suspensory bandage. 
Belladonna ointment may he applied over the swollen testicle. 
The only curative treatment is constitutional, and consists in the 
administration of iodid of potash, either alone or in combination 
with a mercurial. 

Tuberculosis. —Tuberculosis of the genito-urinary system 
usually begins in the testicles in the male, although the kidneys, 
one or both, or rarely the bladder, may first show signs of the 
disease. Tubercular cystitis is one of the worst forms of disease 
a physician is called upon to treat. 

Tuberculosis in the testicle sometimes follows a slight injury 
and sometimes develops spontaneously. Its early progress may be 
unnoticed, or there may he a moderate acute swelling, chiefly of 
the epididymis, which causes the patient a little pain. In either 
case the characteristic lesions soon appear. On palpation there 
will he found one or more moderately tender indurated foci in the 
epididymis. These are the tubercular nodules. As the disease 
progresses other nodules may appear either in the epididymis or 
in the cord, or in the corresponding seminal vesicle, as detected 
by the finger in the rectum. Possibly no nodule may he felt in 
the cord or seminal vesicle, these structures simply being harder 
and larger than those of the opposite side. The testicle itself 
increases in size, owing to the inflammatory products around the 
tubercular nodule. Still later the centers of one or more nodules 
may break down and resulting purulent and necrotic fluid may 
work its way to the surface and be discharged. A permanent 
sinus will result, discharging the w r atery, flaky, seropurulent fluid 
characteristic of tubercular sinuses. 

Usually the disease is unilateral, although it sometimes hap¬ 
pens that both seminal vesicles will be affected, while only one 
testicle shows signs of disease. In the beginning of the trouble 
the patient’s health may he good. Later, a careful examination 
will usually show some evidence of tuberculosis in the lungs or 
elsewhere. The differential diagnosis of syphilis of the testicle is 
given above. 

Treatment. —The appropriate treatment is an early and com¬ 
plete removal of so much of the diseased tissue as is accessible. 
If a single movable node exists it may be allowable to excise it 
without removing the whole testicle. Usually, however, unilateral 


230 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


castration should be performed and as much of the vas deferens as 
possible should be pulled out with it. No dangerous hemorrhage 
follows this so-called evulsion of the vas. To remove affected 
seminal vesicles through a perineal incision is a serious operation. 

Simple castration is described on page 235. When performed 
for tuberculosis of the testicle, it has to be slightly modified on 
account of the involvement of the scrotum, and the necessity of 
removing as much of the vas deferens as possible. The incision 
should be made in the direction of the cord, and should extend 
nearly as high up as the external ring. At its lower end it should 
circle around the involved skin, being carried wide of any sinus, 
as there will be plenty of surplus skin after the testicle has been 
removed. When the testicle with its attached diseased skin has 
been separated from the scrotum, the cord should be freed by blunt 
dissection up to the external ring. The vas should be isolated, 
and all of the other structures of the cord cut squarely across. 
Divided vessels should be separately ligated and an additional 
ligature placed around the stump of the cord. The testicle is 
now connected to the body only by the vas deferens. Steady trac¬ 
tion is made upon this. The grasp of the fingers is more firm 
if the vas is wrapped in gauze. As more and more of the vas 
appears at the external ring, the vas should be grasped higher up 
so that if it breaks the greatest possible length may be secured. In 
this manner from six to twelve inches may be pulled out. The 
wound in the scrotum is sutured with fine silk or catgut. The 
irregular incision often makes necessary a Y-shaped suture line. 
Most of the blood supply of the scrotum reaches it through the 
median raphe, so that particular attention should be given to this 
part if the excision extends to the opposite side. If there is 
oozing, a slight drain should be used. Hidden hemorrhage after 
scrotal excision is very common, and may require reopening the 
wound and ligation. Hence, it is well to avoid this by a careful 
ligation of all vessels. One cannot trust to pressure of the dress¬ 
ing in this location, as it is safe to do after many other wounds. 


CHAPTER IX 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO¬ 
URINARY ORGANS 

CYSTIC TUMORS OF THE EXTERNAL GENITALS 

Cysts of the Skin. —A retention cyst containing serum or 
sebaceous material may be found in the skin of the penis (Fig. 
120) or scrotum. 

Sebaceous material retained back of the corona in children 



Fig. 120. —Serous Cyst of the Prepuce. This occurred in a patient aged fifty-five 

years, who had a large left inguinal hernia. 


with long, 
overlying e 


narrow foreskins frequently becomes encysted. The 

pithelium in these cases is thin, and can be wiped away 

231 




232 TUMORS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


with, gauze as soon as the foreskin is fully retracted. Deeper col¬ 
lections of epithelial cells and sebaceous material may also form 
in this region (Dig. 121), possibly on account of inexact approxi¬ 
mation of the edges of epithelium 
after circumcision. 

The scrotum is also a common 
seat of milia (see p. 66). 

Treatment. —Smaller cysts 
may be evacuated and their cavi¬ 
ties allowed to granulate; but a 
better plan for them and for 
larger cysts is the removal of the 
lining membrane and suture of 
the incision in the overlying epi¬ 
thelium. Compare the operation 
for sebaceous cysts of the head, 
given on page 68. 

Cysts of the Testicle. — 
Retention cysts of the testicle are 
not so very rare. They are usually round, tense, fully movable, 
and situated in or near the upper end of the epididymis. Ana¬ 
tomically they may be connected with the testis or epididymis or 
the fetal remains of this vicinity, the paradidymis so called. They 
rarely reach an inch in diameter, and are usually single, but 
may be multiple. The contained fluid is pearly or whitish, and 
occasionally contains spermatozoa. Such a cyst in all but 
the contained fluid closely resembles a hydrocele of the cord (see 
p. 240). 

Treatment. —Aspiration is usually performed to establish the 
diagnosis. It may be followed by the injection of a few drops of 
carbolic acid or the cyst may be dissected out through a short 
scrotal incision. 



Fig. 121.—Cyst of Prepuce Follow, 
ing Circumcision in a Patient of 
Four Years of Age. 


SOLID TUMORS OF THE EXTERNAL GENITALS 

Papilloma. —Multiple papillomata of the penis are often 
called venereal warts because they may follow an attack of gonor¬ 
rhea, though not necessarily so. They are usually found in the 
uncleanly or those who are unable to retract the foreskin, and are 





EPITHELIOMA 


233 


situated in the neighborhood of the corona. They are small, ses¬ 
sile or pedicled, and generally multiple. They cause no pain, do 
not lead to ulceration, and annoy the patient merely by their pres¬ 
ence. The best treatment is to snip them off with a pair of sharp 
scissors, and to cauterize the stumps with a little chromic acid 
after the bleeding has been stopped by pressure. These warts may 
also occur about the anus. 

Epithelioma is by far the most common form of malignant 
disease connected with the external genital organs. It usually 



Fig. 122.—Squamous Celled Carcinoma of Penis. 


begins near the corona, either upon the mucous membrane of the 
penis or foreskin (Fig. 122). It may, however, occur about the 
meatus. It may also begin in the scrotum, especially in the case 
of workers in paraffin and those who become covered with soot. 
Hence the name “ chimney-sweep’s cancer.” It presents the char¬ 
acteristics of epithelioma of the skin in any part of the body. 
Upon the head of the penis it usually begins to grow upward before 
it ulcerates so that it looks like a wide-spreading wart, but sooner 
or later it will lead to hemorrhage and ulceration and present more 
nearly the usual picture of cancer. 

If the foreskin is retractable a mistake in diagnosis is scarcely 
possible. If there is felt through an irretractable foreskin a hard, 
tender mass m the vicinity of the corona, the foreskin should be 






234 TUMORS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


at once incised so as to allow of its retraction and an accurate 
diagnosis. 

The lymphatic inguinal glands may not become affected for 
some months after the appearance of the tumor in the penis. This 
justifies the hope that an early excision of the disease will com¬ 
pletely effect a cure, and statistics show that this hope is a rea¬ 
sonable one. 

Treatment. —The treatment of cancer of the penis is, of 
course, its early removal. This necessitates amputation of the 
penis in nearly all cases. The glands in both groins should also 
be removed. 

Epithelioma of the scrotum, if small and freely movable upon 
the underlying tissues, is easily excised. Owing to the great flexi¬ 
bility of the tissues there is no excuse for not removing with the 
tumor a wide margin of apparently healthy skin. The lymphatic 
glands likely to be involved in cancer of the scrotum are those of 
the inguinal region. They should also be removed. 

Sarcoma or Carcinoma of Testicle. —Malignant disease 
of the testicle is not so very rare. It is of the utmost importance 
to recognize it early. In the early stages of the disease the testicle 
is swollen, smooth, but much harder and heavier than normal. 
There is little or no pain, but a sense of weight. As the 
disease progresses it may infiltrate the surrounding tissues and 
involve the skin. Even before this the superficial vessels are 
much dilated. 

Sarcoma or carcinoma is easily distinguishable from simple 
hydrocele by the light test. A hematocele or an old hydrocele with 
orchitis, like a vascular tumor will often give a feeling of fluctua¬ 
tion, but there will be little or no translucency. It should be borne 
in mind that hydrocele may be secondary to this and other severe 
lesions of the testicle. The collection of fluid is usuallv small, 
and ought in no instance to conceal the severer lesions from a 
careful observer (p. 238). 

Sarcoma and syphilis have many points in common. The his¬ 
tory of syphilis as opposed to that of injury, and the beneficent 
effect of treatment by salvarsan or iodid as opposed to a continued 
growth in spite of treatment, are aids in differential diagnosis 
(see also p. 228). Treatment consists in the immediate removal 
of the affected testicle, with cord and inguinal glands. 


TUMORS OF THE PROSTATE: PROSTATIC HYPERTROPHY 235 


Castration. —This operation may be performed under a local 
or a. general anesthetic. The latter is preferable in malignant 
cases, as the dissection should then be carried well up into the 
groin. 

In non-malignant cases the skin of the scrotum should be 
cleansed and shaved, and the penis wrapped in gutta percha tissue 
or sterile gauze. An incision parallel to the cord should be made 
from the external ring downward for an inch or more. After divi¬ 
sion of skin, cremaster, and tunica, the testicle can be brought out 
of the wound. If there is any doubt as to the nature of the dis¬ 
ease, the testicle should be incised. If it is decided not to remove 
it, the incision may be sutured. This step is important, for cas¬ 
tration has been performed in cases of hematocele and even hydro¬ 
cele, a wrong diagnosis having been made. 

The attachment of testicle to the bottom of the scrotum is next 
to be divided. The testicle is then withdrawn from the wound 
and removed with so much of the cord as conditions make neces¬ 
sary. There are three arteries to ligate—the cremastric, the sper¬ 
matic, and the artery of the vas deferens—and several veins. The 
stump of the vas may be touched with carbolic acid, or a cautery in 
infective cases. Skin involved by disease should be removed and 
healthy skin sutured. If a small gutta percha drain is placed in 
the lower angle of the wound or through the bottom of the scro¬ 
tum, it should be removed in two days, or as soon as the serous 
flow becomes scanty, so that a sinus may not be formed. 


TUMORS OF THE BLADDER AND PROSTATE 

Tumors of the Bladder. —Tumors of the bladder may be 
either benign or malignant. T hey are apt to be papillomatous, 
and first attract attention either by obstructing the flow of urine 
or by giving rise to hemorrhage. Their diagnosis and treatment 
are often extremely difficult, and form an important chapter in 
major surgery. 

Tumors of the Prostate: Prostatic Hypertrophy.— 

Tumors of the prostate are rare unless one considers as a tumor 
the chronic enlargement of the prostate so often found in men 
past middle age. This may remain unnoticed until its infringe¬ 
ment on the urethra causes delay in starting the stream, a feeble 


236 TUMORS OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


stream, and dribbling at the end. Where enlargement is more 
marked symptoms of urethritis and cystitis are added, and sooner 
or later the patient is likely to suffer from inability to pass water. 
Hence prostatic hypertrophy ought always to be borne in mind 
under such circumstances if the patient is over forty years of age. 
If the enlargement is not too great or does not press forward too 
sharply against the urethral canal, a soft rubber catheter can 
usually be passed to the bladder and the patient be thus tempo¬ 
rarily relieved. If this is not possible the surgeon may suc¬ 
ceed in passing a silver instrument bent in an extra large curve, 
the so-called prostatic curve. Failing in this, he must resort 
to some of the measures spoken of under the caption “ Reten¬ 
tion of Urine ” (p. 219). In the early stages of this difficulty, 
the administration of urotropin or one of the various manu¬ 
factured medicines which contain it, will often cause the 
prompt disappearance of the symptoms. The relief thus obtained 
is, of course, not permanent, but it may last some weeks or months. 
When the prostatic enlargement again forces itself into notice, 
daily catheterization and irrigation, or cauterization of the pros¬ 
tate through the urethra (Bottinks method), or prostatectomy car¬ 
ried out through a suprapubic or perineal incision must be con¬ 
sidered. The description of these operations will be found in 
detail in books on major surgery. Castration was at one time 
extolled as a means of reducing enlargement of the prostate, but 
it has not proved successful in most cases. 


ACQUIRED DEFORMITIES 

Hydrocele. Hydrocele is an accumulation of fluid in the 
tunica vaginalis (Figs. 123 and 124). It may occur at any age 
and be unilateral or bilateral. It may follow an injury or may 
accompany inflammatory conditions, but in most cases no cause for 
it is apparent. 

Diagnosis.— Symptoms, if any, are due to the increased 
weight which drags upon the cord. Usually a hydrocele is readily 
recognized. If the accumulation of fluid is moderate, there will 
be felt alongside of and partly overlapping the testicle a flabby, 
fluctuating cyst. If the accumulation of fluid is greater, the tunica 
will be distended, and the cyst thus formed will be tense and flue- 



HYDROCELE 


237 


tuating, while the exact location of the testicle may be uncer¬ 
tain. If the tunica is fully distended the whole swelling is pear- 



Fig. 123.— Small Hydrocele. Duration four months. Patient aged sixty-two 

years. 

shaped, the small end being upward. A fluctuation wave is easily 
obtained if the mass is grasped in one hand and tapped with a 
finger of the other hand first in one place and then in another. 



Fig. 124.— Hydrocele of Ten Years’ Duration. Growing most in the past two 
years. Never treated. Patient aged fifty-seven years. 











238 DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


A hydrocele may usually be diagnosed by palpation. Occasion¬ 
ally, however, even the most skilful lingers will be deceived, so that 
in every case the light test should be employed. This depends upon 
the fact that light is more readily transmitted through serum than 
through a blood clot, a hernia, a swollen testicle, or a fleshy tumor, 
these being the conditions most likely to be mistaken for hydro¬ 
cele. The test is applied as follows: A tube about a foot long and 
one inch or less in diameter is pressed against one side of the 
elevated tumor, while the surgeon puts his eye close to the other 
end of the tube. A light is so held that its rays may pass through 
the tumor and tube to the eye of the surgeon. Daylight may be 
employed for this purpose, but is by no means so accurate as con¬ 
centrated artificial light. This test will serve not only to distin¬ 
guish a hydrocele from other swellings, but will show the position 
of the testicle and will thus enable the operator to avoid it in 
thrusting in a trocar for the purpose of aspirating the fluid. The 
light test is more delicate when performed in a darkened room. 
(For diagnosis of hematocele see page 204.) 

Hydrocele differs from hernia in that the inguinal canal is 
empty, there is no cough impulse, the tumor is irreducible, yields 
an exquisite wave of fluctuation, and generally transmits light. 
Hernia and hydrocele may coexist. 

A chronic hydrocele is differentiated from an inflamed testicle 
by its fluctuation and translucency, and by the presence of the 
normal uninflamed testicle, and by the absence of pain. An acute 
hydrocele is often a result of inflammation or injury of the testicle, 
but the amount of fluid is small in these cases. 

Hydrocele is differentiated from a solid (usually malignant) 
tumor by the absence of pain, by the better wave of fluctuation, 
and by translucency. Moreover, the solid tumor will weigh more 
in proportion to its size and will produce dilatation of the blood¬ 
vessels and possibly enlargement of the inguinal glands. A final 
diagnostic test is the aspiration of serous fluid. 

Treatment.— The simplest treatment for hydrocele is the 
aspiration of its contents. As the fluid usually reaccumulates in a 
few weeks, it is better in every instance after the aspiration of the 
fluid to inject a small quantity (five to thirty minims, according 
to the size of the hydrocele) of tincture of iodine or pure carbolic 
acid. This causes for a few minutes a burning sensation which is 



HYDROCELE 


239 


not unendurable. In a day or so, owing to the effect of tlie irri¬ 
tation, the testicle and tunica may swell until the tumor is almost 
as large as before aspiration. The swelling gradually decreases, 
however, and in a majority of instances the hydrocele does not 
recur. The patient should be informed of this inflammatory reac¬ 
tion, otherwise he may believe that the hydrocele has promptly 
recurred and will probably seek other medical advice. 

The aspiration and injection can easily be performed at the 
surgeon's office as follows: The patient should lie on his back. 
The scrotum should be carefully washed and made surgically clean. 
It should be supported and distended by an assistant, while the 
surgeon plunges the needle of a hypodermic syringe into the tunica 
at some point far removed from the testicle, which ordinarily lies 
in the lower posterior portion of the tumor. Serous fluid will 
immediately flow from the needle, which should be left in posi¬ 
tion, as the iodine or carbolic acid is subsequently to be injected 
through it. A small sized trocar and cannula are thrust into the 
tunica near the hypodermic syringe. The trocar is withdrawn 
and the hydrocele fluid allowed to escape. The hypodermic 
syringe containing the fluid to be injected is then screwed on to 
the hypodermic needle and the injection is slowly made. The 
cannula and hypodermic needle are then withdrawn and the punc¬ 
tures covered with a little gauze, which is strapped to the scrotum 
and a suspensory bandage is applied. The advantages of this 
method of procedure are two: the introduction of the hypodermic 
needle causes little pain and further confirms the diagnosis, while 
the presence of the two instruments enables the surgeon to be 
absolutely sure that their points are still within the tunica vagi¬ 
nalis before he injects the iodine or carbolic acid, for they can 
be rubbed together and will produce a distinct click. Another 
good plan is to tap the hydrocele with a small trocar, to withdraw 
the same, and when the fluid has run off through the cannula to 
pass through it a second still smaller hollow blunt needle affixed 
to the syringe containing the carbolic or iodine. In this way the 
dosage of the injected fluid may be made accurate, as none is lost 
in the cannula. Unless some such method is employed it may hap¬ 
pen that the collapsed tunica retracts over the point of the cannula, 
allowing the injected fluid to pass into the scrotum outside of the 

tunica. 


240 DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


A hydrocele may recur after injection. This is the rule if a 
very small quantity of fluid is injected, but the reaction after a 
small injection is very slight, so that a repetition of the aspiration 
and the injection, perhaps three or more times, is not objection¬ 
able. By this treatment the patient loses no time from his busi¬ 
ness and there is always a good chance that the second or third 
injection may effect a cure. 

Should a more radical treatment be desired, it may be carried 
out as follows: Make an incision through the skin of the scrotum 
anteriorly, parallel to the long axis of the body, extending from 
the upper end of the whole swelling to a little below its middle. 
It will be necessary to divide several layers of fascia and thin 
muscle (dartos) before exposing the tunica vaginalis. This should 
be incised throughout nearly its whole length. The fluid is fully 
evacuated, surplus portions of the sac are removed, and the edges 
of the sac so stitched to the edges of the skin that the sac remains 
open. Its cavity is filled loosely with gauze, and allowed to heal 
by granulation. 

Another method of operating consists in the removal of the 
greater part of the parietal portion of the sac. The visceral por¬ 
tion should be lightly scratched with a needle to facilitate adhe¬ 
sions between it and the subcutaneous tissue. The wound may be 
closed either partially or wholly. 

These severer operations require the patient to remain in bed 
for some days. 

Unusual Types of Hydrocele. —In the hydrocele, as de¬ 
scribed above, the fluid collects in the normal tunica vaginalis. 
There are several other varieties of hydrocele. 

Congenital Hydrocele.—The cavity of the tunica vaginalis may 
extend upward as far as the internal abdominal ring, or may even 
connect with the cavity of the peritoneum. Tnder such circum¬ 
stances the opening is usually small, but pressure upon the hydro¬ 
cele, if the patient is in a recumbent position, will cause the fluid 
to disappear into the abdominal cavity. It will reaccumulate 
when the patient resumes an upright position. 

Hydrocele of the Cord.—Fluid may collect in some unobliter¬ 
ated portion of the peritoneal process which accompanies the de¬ 
scent of the testicle. This is called a hydrocele of the cord. A 
hydrocele of the cord may coexist with hydrocele of the tunica 


VARICOCELE 


241 


vaginalis, the two sacs being entirely distinct and possibly sepa¬ 
rated by an inch or more of normal cord, or the hydrocele of the 
cord may exist alone, or there may be more than one hydrocele of 
the cord. 

The diagnosis of these conditions is sometimes easy, sometimes 
difficult. They are most likely to be confused with hernia. If 
the hydrocele extends into the inguinal canal an impulse in the 
tumor may be produced by coughing. Again, the possibility of 
reducing the fluid into the peritoneal cavity may be misleading, 
but the fact that it reaccumulates when the patient stands upright, 
even though the finger of the surgeon be lightly pressed upon the 
external ring, will usually suffice for a correct diagnosis. A her¬ 
nia may coexist with a hydrocele, and here again the diagnosis 
may be easy or difficult (see pp. 194 and 238). 

If the hydrocele of the cord is situated low down, it may be 
impossible to differentiate it from a cyst of the epididymis except 
by aspiration. The fluid in these cysts is pearly or milky white, 
while that in a hydrocele is straw-colored. 

Treatment may be by aspiration and injection of a few drops 
of carbolic acid or iodine; but on account of the difficulty of exact 
diagnosis in many of these cases, it is better to expose the sac 
through a short skin incision, to dissect it free and to remove it, 
and suture the wound. In this way one avoids the chance of 
doing injury by aspiration and injection. It is better that the 
patient should go to bed for a week or two, with a reasonable cer¬ 
tainty of cure, than that he should be subjected to danger because 
the surgeon is working in the dark. 

Varicocele. —Another common abnormal condition within the 
scrotum is varicocele. The essential feature of varicocele is a 
lengthening, dilatation, and contortion of the veins accompanying 
the spermatic cord (Figs. 125 and 126). 

Varicocele is almost exclusively found upon the left side. A 
number of reasons have been given to explain this. It has been 
pointed out that the left spermatic vein is longer than the right 
and empties into the left renal at a right angle, whereas the ter¬ 
mination of the right vein is in the vena cava, and the angle is 
oblique. 

It seems probable that modern clothing has something to do 
with the development of varicocele on the left side. The almost 


242 DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

invariable habit men have of placing both testicles and the penis 
in the left leg of the trousers may drag upon the left cord so as 
to interfere with its circulation. At least the writer lias known 



Fig. 125.— Varicocele of Moderate Degree. Duration, one year. Patient aged 

thirty-six years. 

the pain from a moderate varicocele to disappear soon after the 
patient made it a practice to put testicles and penis in the right 
leg of the trousers, thus giving the support of the seam to the 
weaker (left) organ. 

Keyes calls attention to the fact that varicocele is almost exclu¬ 
sively a condition of young unmarried men, and frequently dis¬ 
appears within a short time after marriage. 

The veins first affected are usually situated just above the 
testicle or by the side of its upper portion. They may also extend 
well up to the external ring. A well marked varicocele has been 
aptly compared to a bag of earthworms from the sensation pro¬ 
duced upon the palpating thumb and finger. If the veins are very 



VARICOCELE 


243 


large there may be some impulse on coughing. The size of the 
tumor will he considerably reduced when the patient lies down. 

ihe symptoms produced in the patient are a dragging, heavy 
sensation, often associated with more or less constant pain in the 
testicle and cord, and possibly in the penis. Aside from this local 
discomfort the patient is often distressed by the thought that the 
continuance of the trouble will affect his virility. This does not 
appear to be true, although the atrophy of the corresponding tes¬ 
ticle often seen in connection with a long standing varicocele sug¬ 
gest this idea. The scrotum will usually be found relaxed to an 
uncomfortable extent. These local disturbances, combined with the 
mental distress, often affect the general health of the patient. 



Fig. 126.— Varicocele of Extreme Degree. Veins unusually large and distinct. 
Duration, fourteen years. Patient aged twenty-nine years. 

Treatment. —In many cases relief follows the use of a sus¬ 
pensory bandage, cold bathing and attention to the general health, 
18 





244 DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


and particularly to the condition of the bowels. When these simple 
measures fail to bring relief, operation is indicated. 

There are several forms of operation which have proved suc¬ 
cessful. They are all capable of easy performance under eucain 
or cocain, unless the nervousness of the individual makes a gen¬ 
eral anesthetic desirable. A short incision parallel to the cord is 
made over the upper portion of the dilated veins. The mass of 
dilated veins is separated from the surrounding tissues and ligated 
in two places and divided. Before the ligatures are tied the sur¬ 
geon should convince himself that they do not include the vas 
deferens by actually feeling it outside of the ligature. A slightly 
more extensive operation includes the dissection of a part of or 
the whole mass of dilated veins and the careful ligation of their 
stumps. The upper and lower ligatures may be tied together, thus 
closing the gap caused by the removal of the veins and giving 
extra support to the testicle. The wound in the skin is sutured 
with fine black silk. If the scrotum is lax the above operation 
may be combined with removal of its most dependent portion. 
The major part of the excision should take place on the affected 
side. The wound is fully sutured. It makes no difference in 
which direction the suture line in the scrotum runs. 

Although these operations^are simple and the patient can walk 
home after their performance, it is better for him to go to bed 
before operation and to remain in bed for a few days afterward 
to avoid bringing strain upon the parts and to lessen the risk 
of hemorrhage, always an unpleasant complication when it occurs 
in the loose tissues of the scrotum. 

The after-treatment consists in the wearing of a suspensory 
bandage for a time and attention to the general health. There is 
seldom recurrence, especially if a considerable part of the dilated 
veins have been removed. 

CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES 

Phimosis. —The commonest malformation of the male geni¬ 
tals is phimosis. The foreskin may or may not be of unusual 
length. Its opening is too small to permit the retraction of the 
foreskin over the head of the penis (Big. 127). It may be so 
small as seriously to interfere with the passage of urine. If the 


PHIMOSIS 


245 


opening is minute the sebaceous secretion around the corona does 
not readily find an exit, and the slight irritation produced by its 
presence often causes adhesions between the mucous membrane of 
the head of the penis and the inner layer of the foreskin. Some¬ 
times these adhesions are easily broken up, sometimes the two 
layers of epithelium are so firmly grown together that one or the 



Fig. 127.— Tight Phimosis; Congenital. Patient aged sixteen years. 


other is torn away in the complete retraction of the foreskin. In 
a more serious degree of phimosis the entire space between the 
head of the penis and the foreskin is obliterated, and the skin 
covering the penis is attached directly around the meatus. 

Treatment. —At birth the foreskin is so thin and elastic that 
even though its opening is very small, it can usually be forcibly 
retracted. If gauze is employed to prevent the foreskin from slip¬ 
ping through the surgeon’s fingers, less force is necessary. The 
passage of a thin, flat probe between the foreskin and the glans 
penis will be found useful in breaking up any existing adhesions. 
Or the foreskin may be drawn forward and its opening enlarged by 
inserting in it the beak of a pointed closed artery forceps, and then 
separating the blades. The foreskin should then be retracted and 
the head of the penis smeared with a bland ointment to prevent 







246 DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


the formation of adhesions. The foreskin should then be again 

* 

drawn over the glans, and never left retracted lest paraphimosis 
be produced (p. 205). This treatment should be repeated every 
few days until the tendency toward retraction is outgrown. 

Operative treatment for phimosis consists in making a dorsal 
incision or two lateral incisions through the foreskin so as to in¬ 
crease the size of the orifice; or in the removal of a wide circle 
of skin about the orifice. This last operation is called circum¬ 
cision. 

Incision of the Foreskin .—A dorsal incision is a temporary 
expedient to be resorted to in the presence of inflammation or 
edema, especially when the foreskin has been drawn back beyond 
the corona of the glans and cannot be brought over it again. It 
leaves an unsightly deformity, and should always be considered 
merely a temporary measure. It is performed as follows: 

If the foreskin is retracted, the tightest portion is obscured 
between the looser folds of skin of the inner and outer portions 
of the prepuce. These roll up in two rings of edematous skin. 
By separating them the tense constricting ring will be revealed. 
A few drops of cocain solution should be injected, and as soon 
as anesthesia has developed the tight ring should be seized with 
mouse tooth forceps and cut through with scissors or a scalpel, and 
the incision continued upward and downward sufficiently to enable 
one to draw the foreskin down over the head of the penis. When 
this is done it is easier to estimate the amount of division which 
is necessary. In general the inner layer of the foreskin should be 
divided to the corona; the outer layer not quite so far. 

If the foreskin is not retracted, as in many cases of chancroid, 
the injection of cocain should be made along the line of incision, 
first in the outer layer of the prepuce and then in its reflected 
layer. The blunt point of a pair of straight scissors should then 
be passed between the head of the penis and the foreskin, and both 
layers of the latter split up for half an inch. The foreskin 
should then be partially retracted, and a second cut made in the 
inner layer of the foreskin so that its division shall be carried 
back to a point opposite the corona. This will enable the foreskin 
to be fully retracted. The operator must then judge as to the 
necessity of any further division of the outer layer, or of the wis¬ 
dom of an immediate circumcision. This should certainly be per- 


CIRCUMCISION 


247 


formed in non-infective cases, and probably in many of the infec¬ 
tive ones as well. 

Two lateral incisions are made in a similar manner to tlie 
single dorsal incision. It is claimed for this method that it is 
never followed by a great edema around the frenum, which is often 
such an annoying sequel of the dorsal incision. 

Circumcision. —This little operation can be performed in a 
number of ways. The practise among the Hebrews when circum¬ 
cision is performed as a religious rite is to draw the foreskin well 
forward, to cut it off with one stroke of a long knife, to immerse 
tlie penis in wine held in the mouth of the rabbi to stop the hemor¬ 
rhage, and then to wrap it in linen rags. It is not surprising that 
dangerous hemorrhage and infection sometimes follow this pro¬ 
cedure, and a few lives have been lost in consequence. 

Equally reprehensible is the practise among some surgeons of 
trying to perform this little operation in the shortest possible time. 
For this purpose clamps have been devised to hold the foreskin so 
that both the external and reflected portions can be cut away by 
a single stroke of the knife. It is obvious that the amount of skin 
thus removed cannot be controlled with certainty, and even if the 
line of incision be a perfectly smooth circular one, a thing which 
rarely happens, the adjustment in length of the external and in¬ 
ternal portions of the prepuce is at best uncertain. There is no 
part of the body concerning which most patients are more sensi¬ 
tive, so that the surgeon ought to be willing to give up a few 
minutes of his time in order to secure a perfect result. 

An extensive experience, both in the performance of this opera¬ 
tion and in the observance of the operation as performed by others, 
has convinced the writer that a perfect result is most likely to be 
attained in the following manner: The patient, if a very young 
baby, requires no anesthetic, or ether may be given. A local anes¬ 
thetic had better not be employed in patients under six or eight 
years of age, as it will not remove the fright of an infant or a 
young child. The parts should be carefully washed with soap 
and warm water and a weak solution of biclilorid of mercury, 
1: 2,000 or weaker. Two sharp nosed artery clamps should be 
fixed upon the orifice of the foreskin to the right and left of the 
dorsal median line. If the orifice is too small to permit this, it 
should first be snipped dorsally with a pair of scissors. Traction 


248 DEFORMITIES of the male GENITO-URINARY organs 

being made upon the clamps, the foreskin is drawn well beyond 
the head of the penis and one blade of a straight scissors is passed 
between the head of the penis and the foreskin. An incision is 
made which extends nearly back to the reflection of the foreskin 



Fig. 128.— Operation for Phimosis. Dorsal and ventral incisions and two tension 

sutures. 

(Fig. 128). In drawing the foreskin forward in this manner 
there is danger that its outer portion will he cut farther hack than 
will its inner portion; hence, aftei* the first clip of the scissors 
the traction upon the clamps should he relaxed and the reflected 
portion of the foreskin should be cut farther if necessary. Two 
clamps are then placed upon the orifice of the foreskin at its lower 
edge and an incision is made between them. This incision is far 
shorter than the dorsal one. The two clamps on the left side are 
then drawn outward and the left half of the foreskin is removed, 
care being taken that the incision through the inner layer of the 
foreskin shall he nearly parallel to the corona of the glans, and 
that the incision through the external layer shall he directly oppo* 
site to it when only slight traction is made upon the clamps. The 
best result is obtained when the portion of the inner layer which 





CIRCUMCISION 


249 


is left is a third or a half of an inch in width. The right half of 
the foreskin is next cut away. Any bleeding points are clamped 
and tied if necessary with very fine catgut. If the hemorrhage 
can be stopped by pressure, so much the better. The edges of the 
external and internal layers of the foreskin are then approximated 
by eight or twelve stitches of fine black silk (Fig. 129). The 
first one should be applied at the frenum, the second upon the dor¬ 
sum of the penis, the third and fourth in the middle of the right 
and left sides respectively. In each of the four spaces thus marked 
off two or three stitches should be placed. When sutured in this 
manner the foreskin will not be drawn unevenly in any direction. 
If preferred, the stitch at the frenum and the dorsal stitch may 
be introduced before the sides of the divided foreskin are removed. 
These stitches, if left long, will serve as retractors. In infants no 
dressing is required, except a little sterile gauze placed between 
the penis and diaper. The mother should be told to keep the penis 
clean by letting a little cooled boiled water run over it after each 
urination. In four or five days the stitches should be removed. 



Fig. 129.— Operation for Phimosis. Circular incisions complete; all sutures 

inserted. 

Silk is better than catgut, for the latter gives way sometimes and 
is, besides, more irritating to the tender skin. In older persons 
the skin should be well retracted and a circular bandage of sterile 
gauze wound around the penis behind the glans. If this becomes 
soiled with urine it should be immediately changed. Attention 





250 DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


on the part of the patient will usually prevent this accident. A 
good precaution is to lie down to urinate, turning almost upon 
the face. This prevents any backward dripping of the urine. 
Dressed in the manner described, the two cut edges of skin are 
closely approximated, and will unite with the minimum amount 
of adhesions. 

Complications and Late Results. —Painful Micturition .— 
The disability following a properly performed circumcision is very 
slight. There may be a little burning during the passage of urine 
for one or two times. In an adult, if an erection occurs, it will 
only be painful in case the dressing is too tight. It can be relieved 
at once by loosening or removing the bandage. 

Hemorrhage is unlikely if all bleeding points have been ligated. 
If it does take place it is usually subcutaneous, and opportunity 
should be given for the escape of the blood through a gap in the 
skin incision. If bleeding is free, and is not controlled by digital 
pressure or cold, the skin wound should be opened sufficiently to 
permit proper ligation of the bleeding vessel. This does not delay 
complete repair nearly as much as the presence of a subcutaneous 
hematoma. 

Edema is usually due to faulty technique, either malapproxi- 
mation of the skin, tearing of the tissues, or hemorrhage beneath 
the skin. It shows itself chiefly about the frenum, and may per¬ 
sist long after the wound is healed. It will ultimately disappear. 
Its disappearance may be hastened by hot applications, counter- 
irritants, pricking with a glover’s needle, etc. 

Infection .—If the wound becomes infected it should he drained 
at once by the removal of one or two stitches, by soaking the penis 
frequently in a mild, hot antiseptic solution, and by wet dressings 
of creolin 1: 200, borolyptol 1: 4, etc. Retraction is likely to fol¬ 
low the removal of stitches, so that in a suppurative case they 
should be allowed to remain until granulations have fixed the 
skin edges in contact. 

Retraction of the skin of the penis, so that its cut edge is every¬ 
where separated from the cut edge of the mucous membrane, takes 
place in some cases of infection; and sometimes without infection, 
if so much skin has been removed that there is undue tension upon 
the sutures. The immediate result is a circular band of granula¬ 
tions, over which new epithelium will creep in the course of a 


NARROW MEATUS 


251 


couple of weeks. The ultimate result is generally good, although 
the immediate result is so discouraging. The skin of the penis is 
capable of great stretching, so that erection is not permanently 
interfered with, even by the removal of too much skin. 

Irregularity in Outline .—An uneven section of the skin should 
he corrected at the time of operation, hut if not noticed then it is 
better to correct it by a subsequent operation than to allow a 
patient to go away dissatisfied. A common error is to leave 
too much skin at the frenum. This projects beneath the tip 
of the penis and catches the last drops of urine, besides being 
unsightly. 

If circumcision is performed to aid the patient in overcom¬ 
ing the habit of masturbation, superfluous skin about the frenum 
should never be left, since it is most abundantly supplied with 
sensory nerves, and especially invites manipulation. 

Recurrence of Phimosis .—If the inner layer is left long, say 
half an inch or more, and the suturing or the dressing has been 
carelessly done, it may happen that the inner and the outer layers 
of the foreskin will firmly unite for a distance of a quarter of an 
inch or more from their free edges. There will then be formed 
a strong band of cicatricial tissue completely encircling the penis, 
which by its contraction may so reduce the orifice of the foreskin 
as to render necessary a second operation. 

Short Frenum. —The frenum should not take all the strain 
when the skin of the penis is retracted. If it is so short that it 
does so, the penis may be curved during erection, or erection may 
be painful, and normal coitus impossible. 

Under such circumstances the frenum should be put on the 
stretch and pierced and cut with a sharp pointed knife, the edge 

of which is directed away from the penis. 

Narrow Meatus. —The external orifice of the urethra may 
he narrow. This condition may he an accompaniment of phimosis 
or it may exist alone. The narrowing is not usually sufficient to 
interfere with urination, and it does not ordinarily come to the 
surgeon’s notice until he has occasion to pass instruments or treat 
the patient for urethral discharge. It is then an interference and 

should be divided. 

The narrowing of the meatus is usually due to an extension 
of the mucous membrane across the lower portion of the urethral 


252 DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


orifice. Sensibility should be benumbed by the application of a 
drop of strong solution of cocain (ten per cent) or the hypoder¬ 
mic injection of a drop of a weak solution (one per cent). Tlie 
web should then be divided by a blunt pointed narrow knife suffi¬ 
ciently to make the caliber of the meatus fully as great as that of 
the urethra. The patient should soak the end of the penis in hot 
saline, and separate the lips of the meatus once every day to pre¬ 
vent them from reuniting. The surgeon should pass a full sized 
sound through the meatus twice a week for two weeks, to insure 
the full benefit of the operation. 

Hypospadias. —This malformation consists in a defect in the 
lower portion of the urethra, so that the urine is passed through 
a fistula in the glandular penile or perineal urethra. Usually 
there is an absence of urethra distal to the fistula. There is often 
an accompanying flattening of the head of the penis or a down¬ 
ward curving of the whole organ. 

Treatment. —If the opening is not farther back than the mid¬ 
dle of the pendulous portion of the penis, a complete restoration of 
function, both urinary and procreative, may be obtained by a 
simple plastic operation. The gutter which marks the site where 
the urethra should be may be covered by skin flaps cut from the 
edges of this gutter and turned over a small catheter. The raw 
surfaces of these flaps may be covered by the remaining skin of 
the penis or in some cases by flaps from the prepuce, if any prepuce 
is present. 

Another plan of treatment is to free by dissection the existing 
urethra, to puncture the blind distal portion of the penis, and to 
bring forward through the artificial canal thus made the dissected 
urethra. Its elasticity permits it to be stretched to twice its nor¬ 
mal length. The details of these ingenious operations, and others 
adapted to the more serious cases of fistula of the deeper urethra, 
will be found in text-books on major surgery and genito-urinary 
surgery. 

Epispadias and Exstrophy of the Bladder. —In epi¬ 
spadias the urethra opens upon the dorsal surface of the penis. 
This condition is often associated with exstrophy of the bladder, 
which renders a perfect restoration of function by means of opera¬ 
tion well-nigh impossible; and the patient is compelled to resort to 
the constant use of a urinal. 


UNDESCENDED TESTICLE 


253 


Undescended Testicle. —One or both testicles may be ab¬ 
sent from the scrotum, either in infancy or adult life. There is 
rarely a failure of the testicles to develop, but usually the testicles 
if not in the scrotum will lie in the inguinal canals, or still higher 
in the abdominal cavity. They may be functionally perfect. 
Their absence is due to an arrest of the descent of the testicles 
from the abdomen to the scrotum, which takes place normally in 
fetal life. 

There are varying degrees of undescended testicle. If one tes¬ 
ticle is found in the inguinal canal of an infant, but can be easily 
pressed out of the canal into the scrotum, the mother should 
be shown how to press it through the canal and lightly draw it 
down into the scrotum. If this performance is repeated every 
day one may safely trust to the growth of the parts to prevent the 
testicle from lodging permanently in the inguinal canal. 

In some infants and even in some young boys the inguinal 
canal is so large that the testicle, although it lies in the scrotum 
most of the time, may be pushed up into the abdomen at will. 
The effect of gravity and motions of the body soon bring it back 
into tbe scrotum. If this condition is not associated with hernia 
it need cause no alarm, and the growth of the child may be safely 
trusted to bring about a normal state of affairs. 

Treatment. —If the testicle is firmly fixed in the inguinal 
canal it will be exposed to injury by reason of its position, and 
it will not develop properly on account of the constant pressure 
exerted upon it. Attempts should therefore be made to bring it 
down into the scrotum, or at least to get it out of the inguinal 
canal and below the external ring. Gentle manipulation by the 
surgeon every two or three days should first be tried. If no 
progress is made the overlying parts should be incised and the 
testicle freed, all of the tissues of the cord except the vas and the 
vessels being divided. The testicle is brought down as far as the 
elasticity of the remaining portion of the cord will permit, and 
after a pouch has been prepared for it in the scrotum, it should 
be sutured to tbe subcutaneous tissue at the bottom of the scrotum 
by fine chromicized catgut. These sutures should of course be 
passed through the fibrous envelope of the organ and not deep 
into its substance. The inguinal canal should be strengthened by 
sutures if it is found weak or had to be split up to permit the 



254 DEFORMITIES OF THE MALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

drawing downward of the testicle. After a few weeks, when all 
inflammatory reaction has subsided, gentle manipulation and trac¬ 
tion should again be resorted to. This will complete the cure in 
case it w r as not possible at the time of operation to bring the testicle 
well down into the scrotum. 

If the testicle at operation cannot be brought out of the ingui¬ 
nal canal, or if it is located under the skin of the thigh or peri¬ 
neum, it is better to push it back into the abdomen and to close by 
suture the internal ring, so that the testicle shall not be constantly 
exposed to injury and pressure. Within the abdomen it can carry 
on its functions normally. For this reason no search should be 

t/ 

made for a testicle which is situated above the internal ring. 

If an undescended testicle is accompanied by hernia, an oper¬ 
ation for radical cure of the hernia should be performed at the 
same time. 

Some surgeons advocate the removal of an undescended testi¬ 
cle because of the fact that sarcoma sometimes develops in such 
an organ. This is a small risk, and removal should not therefore 
be made a routine treatment, if the testicle can be moved into a 
safe place. 


CHAPTER X 


AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY 

ORGANS 

INJURIES AND FOREIGN BODIES 

Contusion. —Contusions of the external genitals are not un¬ 
common either as the result of blows or falls, or in the case of 
young girls as the result of violent attempts at coitus. Bruises 
and abrasions and wounds should receive the same treatment given 
to these lesions in other parts of the body (pp. 2 and 13). Owing 
to the sensitiveness of the skin and its exposure to contamination 
from discharges, etc., especial efforts at cleanliness are recom¬ 
mended. 

Rupture of the Hymen. —The hymen is frequently rup¬ 
tured in early coitus, although usually I he slight tear requires no 
treatment. Sometimes the hemorrhage is great enough to alarm 
the patient and may even require the insertion of one or two fine 
stitches to check it. Unless the tear extends beyond the limits of 
the hymen the suture should be inserted in such a manner as not 
to reduce the size of the orifice. Irrigation with hot saline solution 
after urination will add to the patient’s comfort. 

Rupture of the Vagina. —If the vagina is narrow and 
non-elastic, it too may be ruptured in violent coitus. Indeed the 
rupture may extend into the rectum. It may also be ruptured by 
a fall upon some sharp object. 

The first step in treatment is a complete speculum examination, 
in order to determine the extent of the injury. If the breaks in 
the mucous membrane are slight it is better not to introduce a 
suture. The parts should be cleaned by irrigation with a hot 
mild antiseptic solution, and may be kept from adhering by a 
slender tamponade with aseptic gauze. 

Hematoma. —A hematoma may be formed in the loose cel¬ 
lular tissue about the vaginal orifice. If small, it may be left to 

255 


256 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

be absorbed, but if large or near the surface, a short incision 
should be made—one-half inch will usually suffice—and the blood 
clot should be evacuated. (See the treatment of hematoma given 
on p. 3.) The pressure of dry aseptic dressing will quickly cause 
the walls of the cavity to adhere. If there is any doubt of the 
asepsis a gutta-percha drain should be inserted. This should 
merely pass through the skin and not fill the cavity. After two 
days it should be removed, and not again inserted unless suppu¬ 
ration has taken place. If there is suppuration the cavity of the 
hematoma should be treated like that of an abscess, by free inci¬ 
sion and light gauze drainage (p. 38). 

Acute Laceration of the Perineum. —The perineum may 
be torn by external violence, but the almost invariable cause is 
childbirth. The tear is usually a straight one in the median line 
or near it, the variation in different cases being merely one of 
extent. Slight tears heal with sufficient exactness, even without 
sutures, but it is a good plan to suture every laceration, as other¬ 
wise some deeper ones are sure to be overlooked. 

The portion of the perineum which tears is wedge-shaped, with 
the thin edge of the wedge forward. When torn, therefore, there 
are two surfaces for the insertion of sutures, namely, the vagina 
and the skin. The vaginal sutures are the more important, since 
they should protect the deeper part of the wound from the lochial 
discharge. The web between the thumb and fingers is similar to 
the perineum. If it is cut through there will be a palmar skin 
wound and a dorsal skin wound, corresponding to the vaginal and 
skin wounds in a perineal tear. Similarly, if the cut extends 
deeper, muscles will be divided. If one bears this analogy in mind, 
in suturing a torn perineum he will have little difficulty in the 
correct apposition of the tom surfaces. 

Treatment. —The proper treatment for laceration of the 
perineum is the immediate aseptic suture of the separated tis¬ 
sues in their normal relation. This is very easy under favorable 
conditions. If the patient weighs one hundred and eighty pounds 
and lies in the middle of a low soft bed and no trained assistant 
is obtainable, the task is well-nigh impossible. The patient should 
lie on the back, with thighs well flexed and hip close to the edge 
of the bed and raised on a hard pillow. An anesthetic is a con¬ 
venience, but is not absolutely necessary in many cases. The 




HEMORRHAGE 


257 


labia are drawn well apart, and the wounded surface wiped dry 
with a gauze sponge. Blood from the cervix or uterus can be pre¬ 
vented from flowing over the perineal wound by pushing one or 
two gauze sponges well up into the vagina. The extent of lacera¬ 
tion can then be accurately seen. 

If any muscles or the perineal body have been torn, deep as 
well as superficial sutures must be inserted. Plain catgut, No. 2, 
or ten day chromic catgut, No. 1, is a good material for the deep 
suture. It saves time to insert it as a continuous suture. The 
vaginal tear should then be sutured from its upper end down¬ 
ward. The same material may be used for suture. It is of the 
greatest importance that the upper end of the tear shall be accu¬ 
rately sutured. Otherwise fluid may trickle down into the wound 
and defeat union altogether or in part. The wound in the skin 
should be sutured with fine black silk; or if it is desired to insert 
these sutures more deeply, so that they shall aid in holding to¬ 
gether the perineal body, silkworm gut is an excellent material. 

If the tear extends into the rectum, the mucous membrane 
of the latter should be sutured with fine black silk, in addition 
to the muscular and cutaneous sutures mentioned above. 

After-treatment consists in keeping the suture line as clean 
as possible. The patient may be catheterized; but if she passes 
water voluntarily, the line of sutures should be cleansed each 
time with sterile water, and carefully dried with sterile gauze. 
The patient should lie on her side and face a part of the time, 
and not continuously on her back. Non-absorbable sutures should 
be removed in ten days. For the late treatment of laceration of 
the perineum, see page 275. 

Hemorrhage. —In the treatment of hemorrhage of the female 
genitals, it is all important to locate its source. It is necessary to 
insist upon this point, since a feeling of delicacy upon the part 
of the patient and physician as well, may result in the injudicious 
application of tampons or external compresses by the nurse or 
patient. The only rational procedure is a complete exposure of 
the parts in a good light, thorough cleanliness, and the ligation 
if necessary of bleeding vessels. Slight hemorrhage can be con¬ 
trolled by gauze compresses, applied either within or outside the 
vagina by the surgeon himself, under the favorable conditions 
mentioned above. If the patient is sensitive an anesthetic should 


258 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

be given. The introduction of gauze within the uterine cavity 
to control hemorrhage is a procedure rarely required and one 
worthy of the most careful antiseptic precautions and subsequent 
treatment in bed. The use of dilute solutions of suprarenal ex¬ 
tract to control hemorrhage has been spoken of on page 6. Larger 
bleeding vessels should be ligated with fine catgut, and any wounds 
closed by sutures of catgut or fine silk. 

Rape. —A physician is sometimes called upon to examine a 
woman or young girl in order to determine whether rape has been 
attempted. He ought to exercise great caution in making a posi¬ 
tive affirmation, unless the laceration of the hymen and possibly 
of the vagina clearly show a violent distention of these parts. 
Purely external injuries may of course have beeen caused by 
other means. The microscopical demonstration of semen upon 
the clothes of the female is better evidence, but this is a subject 
for medico-legal experts. On the other hand, coitus, though 
forced, may leave no external evidence in case of an adult, so that 
a negative statement should not be carelessly made. The doctor 
ought rather to confine himself to a statement of the condition 
in which he finds the external and internal genital organs. 

Also in the matter of a purulent vaginal discharge, which in 
young girls often excites suspicion that they have been improp¬ 
erly handled by some man, a physician should be careful not to 
claim too much. A purulent discharge of this character may or 
may not be due to gonococci, and, even if it is demonstrated to 
contain gonococci, it may have been set up by contact with some 
other female or by the use of a dirty towel, or in some other man¬ 
ner than by attempted coitus. 

Foreign Bodies. —Foreign bodies are frequently introduced 
into the vagina and urethra for the sake of sexual excitement. 
The patient seldom loses control of such objects in the vagina, 
but those which are introduced into the urethra may slip from 
the fingers or be broken in the canal, and thus medical aid will 
have to be summoned. The greatest variety of objects have been 
found under such circumstances, either in the urethra or partially 
or wholly within the bladder. Slate-pencils, hairpins, and hat¬ 
pins are among the commonest. The pins are introduced head 
foremost, so that their extraction is difficult. Foreign objects 
in the vagina are usually neglected pessaries, or some objects which 


FOREIGN BODIES 


259 


have been introduced by the patient to prevent prolapse of the 
uterus. 

The symptoms produced will depend upon the location and 
character of the foreign body. It may interfere with urination, 
01 cause a bloody or purulent discharge, or set up inflammation 
of the urethra or bladder. If the foreign body remains a long 
time in the urethra or bladder, it may become the core about 
which a calculus is formed. If it is in the vagina it may also 

become incrusted, or it may partially bury itself in the vaginal 
walls. 

Diagnosis. —The diagnosis of a foreign body is made partly 
from the symptoms above enumerated, but chiefly from the results 



Fig. 130.— Urethroscope for Examination of the Female Urethra. A portion 
of the bladder can be seen through such an instrument. It is well to have such 
instruments of three sizes, ranging in diameter from 5 to 15 millimeters (I to | inch). 

of physical examination. Digital examination, direct inspection 
through a vaginal speculum, or through a smaller urethral specu¬ 
lum, called a urethroscope (Fig. 130), are the usual methods em- 

19 
















260 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

ployed. When the foreign body is in the bladder, it usually lies 
transversely, especially when the bladder is empty, since the long 
axis of the collapsed organ is transverse. Its presence may he rec¬ 
ognized by means of a sound or by the finger passed through the 
dilated urethra, or by the cvstoscope. 

Tkeatment. —The removal of these foreign objects affords a 
wide scope for the ingenuity of the surgeon. If the foreign body 
is in the vagina, this canal should be thoroughly cleansed by irri¬ 
gation and sponging with an antiseptic solution, in order to reduce 
the risk of infection in wounds which may be made intentionally 
or accidentally in removing the foreign body. An old pessary 
can usually be extracted without difficulty, even if it is encrusted. 
Some objects are best removed after being cut into two or three 
pieces. 

A blunt pointed object lying in the urethra may possibly be 
worked out of the canal, a little at a time, in the manner described 
in connection with foreign bodies in the male urethra (p. 207). 
If a pin lies in the urethral canal with the point directed out¬ 
ward, it may be possible to pass a small rubber tube into the ure¬ 
thra and over the point of the pin, so that the latter can then be 
crowded outward, or safely grasped with a slender pair of for¬ 
ceps and extracted. The adult female urethra is capable of dila¬ 
tation sufficient to permit the passage of the little finger. This 
dilatation not only facilitates an exact diagnosis, but it is a mate¬ 
rial help in the extraction of foreign bodies by means of slender 
forceps. Small foreign bodies and calculi can be extracted whole. 
Larger calculi and friable objects may be crushed and extracted. 
If the foreign body cannot be moved through the moderately 
dilated urethra, it is better to perform suprapubic cystotomy than 
to run the risk of permanent incontinence by too great dilatation 
of the urethral canal. 

INFLAMMATIONS 

Pruritus. —An intense itching of the vulva, most marked in 
the vicinity of the clitoris, and associated with a thickening of the 
skin is commonly called pruritus. Objection has been made to 
this word, since it expresses a symptom rather than a distinct dis¬ 
ease, but it serves a useful purpose, and for the present at least 
had better be retained. 


SIMPLE VULVITIS AND VAGINITIS 


261 


Pruritus is due to a number of causes, sucli as an irritating 
vaginal discharge, or to decomposition of the urine in diabetes, 
or to parasites, sucli as pediculi or seat worms. In other cases 
it is due to the use of drugs, or to improper articles of diet. Some¬ 
times no cause for the itching can be ascertained, and the pruritus 
is assumed to have a nervous origin. In severe cases the patients 
are most miserable, and scratch and tear the skin until it bleeds. 

Treatment. In every case the cause for the pruritus should, 
if possible, be discovered and removed ; but even when this can 
be done, a certain amount of local treatment is necessary. The 
parts should be bathed twice a day with very hot water, or hot 
boracic acid solution. This should be followed by the applica¬ 
tion of a five per cent solution of carbolic acid, or a solution of 
corrosive sublimate, one grain in a half ounce each of alcohol and 
water. 1 incture of iodine, or five per cent solution of creolin or of 
nitrate of silver, twenty grains to the ounce, have also been used 
with benefit. The folds of the vulva should be kept from contact 
by talcum powder or boracic acid or dermatol • or they may be 
separated by thin layers of gauze smeared with boracic acid oint¬ 
ment or an ointment containing menthol or chloral or cocain. 
Parasites should be destroyed by mercurial or sulphur ointments. 

In obstinate cases success has sometimes followed resection of 
the sensory nerves which supply the clitoris and labia minora. In 
other cases portions of the labia and the clitoris have been re¬ 
moved. 

Eczema. —Eczema of the vulva often follows vulvitis and 
pruritus. Its treatment is similar to that of eczema in other por¬ 
tions of the body (see p. 57). 

Simple Vulvitis and Vaginitis. —The delicate skin about 
the entrance to the vagina and the vagina itself may become in¬ 
flamed as a result of many causes. Such predisposing factors as 
poor health, exposure to cold and wet, and traumatism have to be 
considered, while more immediate causes are irritating urine, hem¬ 
orrhagic and mucous discharges from the uterus or urethra, in¬ 
discreet coitus, constant rubbing to relieve pruritus, etc. Inflam¬ 
mation due to the gonococcus is considered on page 262. 

Idle symptoms are those of inflammation everywhere, edema, 
redness, increased heat and tenderness, plus a mucopurulent or 
purulent discharge, which more or less mats together the folds of 


262 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


skin and tlie hairs. Urination is not usually attended with burn¬ 
ing, unless gonorrhea exists. 

Treatment. —It is desirable to know the cause of the inflam¬ 
mation, and in every case in which this is obscure, or in which the 
inflammation is severe, the discharge should be spread on a glass 
slide, dried and stained for gonococci. Even in the non-specific 
cases precautions should be taken to prevent the infection of other 
persons either by direct contact or by the use of towels, etc., which 
have been used by the j)atient. 

Attention to the bowels, rest, and frequent bathing of the in¬ 
flamed surfaces with a boracic acid solution or one of aluminum 
acetate, two per cent, will usually cure these patients in a few 
days if the cause of the inflammation is not a continuous one. 
The cleansing is best performed by irrigation both within and out¬ 
side of the orifice of the vagina, and the solutions should be as hot 
as can be borne. In the case of little girls, in whom inflammations 
of this character are rather common, the irrigation should be made 
with the utmost gentleness, and care should be taken not to block 
the orifice in the hymen by the nozzle of the syringe. The folds 
of skin should be carefully dried and anointed with cold cream or 
boracic acid ointment to prevent chafing. 

Acute Gonorrhea. — Gonorrheal Vulvitis. —The acute symp¬ 
toms of a gonorrheal infection of the vulva are similar to those 
of a simple vulvitis excepting that they are more marked. There 
is more or less constant pain aggravated by walking, and as the 
urethra is generally involved, there is pain on micturition. The 
skin is reddened, possibly excoriated in places, and there is a pro¬ 
fuse mucopurulent discharge. TVIien this has been sponged away, 
it will be observed that the mucous membrane at the urethral ori¬ 
fice is red and swollen, and pressure of the finger upon the urethra 
will cause a drop of pus to exude. The orifices of Bartholin’s ducts 
are often similarly affected, and the glands themselves may be 
swollen (see p. 263). The diagnosis of gonorrhea should always 
be confirmed by a microscopic examination of the discharge. 

Treatment. —Gonorrheal inflammation of the vulva is of 
itself not serious, except in the case of young children. The risk 
of the infection depends chiefly on its possible spread to the bladder 
or to the uterus and Fallopian tubes, and through them to the 
pelvic peritoneum. The treatment recommended by different wri- 


INFLAMMATION OF BARTHOLIN’S GLAND 


263 


ters varies considerably. Some believe tliat such simple local 
treatment as a hot vaginal donclie is capable of spreading the 
infection, and should not, therefore, be advised. The majority 
take the opposite view, and recommend a hot douche w T ith a per¬ 
manganate solution of the strength of one part of permanganate 
of potash to two thousand of water; or the use of vaginal tampons. 
One plan is to insert after the douche a tampon saturated with 
five per cent argyrol solution, and to remove this in ten minutes, 
and to follow it by a tampon saturated with boroglycerid or some 
other astringent, and to allow this to remain in place until the 
next treatment, twelve hours later. Whatever plan of treatment 
is followed, the patient should remain absolutely quiet in bed until 
the acute symptoms have passed over. The diet should be 
simple, large quantities of water or milk should be given 
daily, and urotropin or some other urinary antiseptic should 
be administered. (Compare the medication recommended on 
page 213.) 

In the later stages of the disease with profuse leueorrlieal dis¬ 
charge a douche of sulphate of zinc oj and powdered alum 3ij to 2 

quarts of water is very effective. 

Gonorrheal Urethritis.—Treatment for gonorrheal urethritis in 

women is similar to that employed for men. The solutions used 
for injection through a blunt pointed syringe may be somewhat 
stronger. When the general inflammation has subsided, local 
areas of persistent infection may be touched through an endoscope 
with a cotton swab wet with a solution of silver of a strength of 
ten per cent or less. 

Inflammation of Bartholin’s Gland. —On either side of 
the vaginal orifice is situated the gland named after its discov¬ 
erer, Bartholin. This gland lies immediately under the skin, and 
is subject to infection through its short duct. The infection is 
usually of a gonorrheal origin. Swelling of the mucous membrane 
of the small duct prevents evacuation of the mucus and pus from 
the cavity of the gland. 

Upon examination there will be found by the side of the 
vagina, just outside of the hymen or its remains, a smooth, rounded, 
slightly movable swelling, very tender on pressure, and giving an 
indistinct sense of fluctuation. If the inflammation is a violent 
one the surrounding cellulitis will obscure these signs, or if the 


264 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


suppuration has broken through the gland into the subcutaneous 
tissue there will be the usual signs of abscess. 

Treatment. —The skin should be anesthetized and the abscess 
opened at the point where it lies nearest the surface. When its 
contents have been evacuated, a small triangular portion of the 
skin and subcutaneous tissue overlying the abscess should be cut 
away: This will greatly facilitate subsequent dressings, for if a 
simple straight incision be made it will he found difficult to rein¬ 
sert the gauze necessary to keep open the incision until the cavity 
of the abscess has granulated from the bottom upward. 

Simple Suppuration. —The usual forms of suppuration, 
boils, abscesses, and cellulitis, may occur in the skin of the exter¬ 
nal genitals. The treatment is similar to that outlined on page 
34 et seq. 

Chronic Gonorrhea. —When the acute symptoms due to 
gonorrhea have subsided the trouble may be found to have 
lodged in the bladder or cervix uteri. The chief symptoms of 
cystitis will be increased frequency and urgency of micturition, 
with a sense of discomfort and heaviness or well marked pain, 
i he general health of the patient is a good deal affected by this 
constant irritation. Daily irrigations of the bladder with mild 
antiseptic solutions should be practised. .Nitrate of silver is the 
favorite remedy for this purpose. The solution first used should 
not contain more than one part of this drug in four thousand of 
water, but this proportion may be increased as the patient be¬ 
comes accustomed to the drug. Argyrol in solutions of two per 
cent or more makes another good fluid for irrigating the bladder. 

If the gonorrheal process extends to the cervix and uterus, as 
shown by a persistent leucorrhea, the cervix should be dilated and 
the lining of cervix and uterus swabbed with cotton moistened 
. with a ten or twenty per cent solution of argyrol every two or 
three days. 

Endocervicitis: Erosion of the Cervix.— Inflammation 

of the cervix uteri may be due to congestion of the uterus caused 
by malposition, etc., or to laceration or to gonorrhea. There is 
usually an exposure and hypertrophy of the columnar epithelium, 
which giv es the os a pouting or unnaturally raw red appearance; 
hence the term ulceration is often used, though incorrectly. 

The most marked symptom of endocervicitis is an increased 




ENDOMETRITIS 


265 


discharge of mucus from cervix and vagina (leucorrhea). Some¬ 
times there is a thick yellowish plug of mucus hanging from the 
os at all times. This is said to be characteristic of gonorrhea, hut 
the diagnosis should he made only after microscopic examination. 
Leucorrhea may be due to endometritis as well as endocervicitis. 
It is also found in women who have not borne children. It is the 
symptom of endocervicitis for which treatment is usually sought. 

Treatment. —Whether there is a local cause for it or not, the 
state of the health has an important bearing upon the continuance 
of leucorrhea, just as it has upon catarrh of other mucous mem¬ 
branes, and the treatment of the patient should always include 
directions calculated to improve the general health. Local treat¬ 
ment consists in the use of hot vaginal douches once or twice a 
day. The fluid used for this irrigation may be pure water or a 
weak solution of carbolic acid (one teaspoonful to the quart) 
or any other antiseptic or astringent solution. To the astringent 
action of douches may be added that of drugs placed upon a cotton 
tampon and applied through a speculum directly to the cervix. 
Ichthyol, ten per cent in glycerin, tannic acid and glycerin, and 
iodine are favorite remedies. Applications of nitrate of silver, ten 
to twenty per cent, may be made to the cervical canal. If there is 
any malposition of the uterus or laceration of the cervix or any 
other condition which may tend to prolong the discharge, it should 
be made the object of special treatment, the details of which will 
be found in text-books on gynecology. 

Gonorrheal endocervicitis is particularly difficult to cure. The 
canal may be touched with strong solutions of silver, or antiseptics 
and astringents may be introduced in the form of suppositories 
into the uterine cavity. Amputation of the cervix is sometimes 
necessary to bring about a cure. 

Endometritis. —There are various forms of endometritis, 
both acute and chronic, but the common form and the only one 
which will be considered here is the hyperplastic form, marked 
by chronic congestion with thickening of the mucous membrane 
which lines the uterus. It has various causes, among which con¬ 
stipation, stenosis of the cervix, uterine displacement and cervical 


laceration are the chief. 


The symptoms are an abnormal discharge of blood either at 
the menstrual period or at other times, and a discharge of mucus— 



266 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


leucorrhea, which for the most part is due to the accompanying 
endocervicitis. 

Diagnosis is made from the symptoms, from bimanual exami¬ 
nation, and from examination through a speculum. The uterus 
is enlarged and soft, and may be variously displaced. Mucus pro¬ 
trudes in many cases from the eroded cervix (see p. 264). Pas¬ 
sage of a probe shows an elongation of the uterine canal, with a 
possible relaxation of the internal os. 

Treatment. —Hot douches and tampons (see p. 265) may 
give temporary relief, but cannot effect a cure in most cases, since 
they do not remove the cause of the congestion. Constipation 
should be overcome, bad habits of life corrected, and an effort made 
to tone up the general system. Operative treatment consists in 
dilatation of the cervical canal and removal of the hypertrophied 
mucous membrane. Lacerations should be repaired and malposi¬ 
tions corrected. 

Stretching the Hymen. —The opening in the hymen is 
sometimes so small that coitus is impossible. Inspection or exam¬ 
ination with the tip of the finger will show whether the bride’s 
feai is justified. In any event it is better to administer an anes¬ 
thetic and carefully dilate the orifice with the finger, or, better, 
with two or three sizes of well lubricated specula, the last being 
fully an inch in diameter. No further attempt at coitus should 
be made for three days, so that the soreness of the dilatation may 
pass off. 

Dilatation of the Cervical Canal. —The cervix is dilated 

for the relief of dysmenorrhea, to overcome sterility, and to permit 
of curettage or other operations within the cervix or uterus. The 
technique is as follows: 1 he bowels should be thoroughly emptied 
the day previous. I he hair should be clipped short, the external 
pa its cleansed with soap and hot water, and the vagina douched 
with a five pei cent solution of creolin or some other antiseptic. 
The patient is put in the lithotomy position, and the posterior wall 
of the vagina is depressed with a weighted speculum. The anterior 
lip of the ceivix is seized with a tenaculum forceps and drawn down. 
If a local anesthetic is employed, three drops of two per cent solu¬ 
tion of cocain should be injected into the tissue grasped by the for¬ 
ceps, and similar injections should be made into other portions of 
the cei\ix and up the cervical canal. An applicator wrapped with 
absorbent cotton saturated with a ten per cent solution of cocain 


CURETTAGE 


267 


should be passed into the cervical canal, and allowed to remain 
in place for at least ten minutes. It is necessary that the tip of 
the applicator pass the internal os, as otherwise the anesthesia will 
not be complete. 

The direction of the cervical canal should next he determined 
by the uterine probe. The knowledge thus gained is of impor¬ 
tance in inserting the dilator. The dilator should he fully intro¬ 
duced before its blades are opened. A little rotation in one direc¬ 
tion or the other facilitates its introduction. Gentle pressure is 
then made upon the handles for ten seconds. The pressure is 
then relaxed, the dilator rotated for a sixth of the circle, pressure 
again exerted, and so on. In this manner, by brief periods of 
gentle pressure made in different directions, the cervix can he 
sufficiently dilated to permit the introduction of a curette or other 
instrument or the insertion of an intra-uterine stem pessary. The 
patient should remain in a recumbent position for at least twelve 
hours after this operation. 

Curettage. —The inner lining of the uterus is frequently 
scraped out as a means of treatment in cases of endometritis, 
and also as a means of removing portions of placental tissue 
remaining after abortion, or as a means of obtaining tissue for 
a microscopical examination in cases of suspected cancer of the 
uterus, etc. 

The cervical canal is first to be dilated. The extent and direc¬ 
tion of the uterine cavity is then determined by the uterine probe, 
and its lining scraped from the fundus to the cervix by a sharp 
curette. This should he systematically done, as otherwise the 
scraping is apt to he excessive in certain portions and insufficient 
in others. The detached shreds of mucous membrane should be 
thoroughly washed out by means of a double current uterine cath¬ 
eter. The fluid used for irrigation should he hot to aid in con¬ 
trolling hemorrhage. 

The patient should remain in bed for two days or more, accord¬ 
ing to the cause for which the curettage is performed. A custom 
which some operators have of packing the cavity of the uterus 
with gauze is not to he recommended in most cases. 

If the scrapings from the uterus are of a fungoid or exuberant 
character, they should he examined microscopically, since they 
may he part of a malignant growth. 


268 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

Chancroid. —A chancroid may occur anywhere about the 
vaginal orifice or its immediate vicinity. If it is so situated as 
to lie between two folds of skin, the lesion is often reproduced on 
the opposing surface. For this reason several chancroids of vary¬ 
ing: ages and sizes are often found in the same patient. The 

O O # 

progress of the disease and the best method of overcoming it are 
described on page 222. It is desirable to keep apart, as far as 
possible, the folds of skin so as to limit the spread of the infec¬ 
tion, hence the necessity of frequent dressings and thorough clean¬ 
liness. A fold of gauze laid between the labia of the right and 
left side, and held in place by the perineal strap of a T-bandage, 
will be found helpful. 



Fig. 131 . —Multiple Syphilitic Tumors of the Yulya. 


Syphilis .—A chancre, the primary lesion of syphilis, may 
occur at any exposed portion of the genital organs of the female, 





SYPHILIS 


269 


but is most likely to be found upon the labia minora or some 
other portion of the delicate skin about the vaginal orifice. It 
may be single, or two separate lesions may coexist. 

The primary lesion of syphilis is apt to be overlooked in the 
female. The surface where it may occur is much greater than is 
that of the male, and is not so readily examined. Hence, a woman 
may contract syphilis without knowledge of the fact. This ex- 



Fig. 132.— Syphilitic Tumor of Thigh near the Vulva. Patient a negress aged 

twenty-seven years. 

plains the occurrence of later lesions of the disease in women who 
deny that they have ever had syphilis, and whose truthfulness there 
is often no reason to doubt. 

The diagnosis is not difficult when a primary lesion is found. 
Its appearance is similar to that of a primary lesion upon the 
male genitals. 

The later lesions of syphilis are not infrequently found upon 
the vulva. The tissues are prone to hypertrophy under the in¬ 
fluence of prolonged irritation, so that mucous patches develop 
strongly and condylomata become extensive, later syphilides often 
assuming a multiple papillomatous character (Fig. 131). This is 
the more usual form, although single tumors also occur (Fig. 132), 

as well as gummatous ulceration. 

For the local and constitutional treatment of syphilis, see 

page 61. 





270 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


TUMORS 

- i 

Benign Tumors. —The benign tumors of the external gen¬ 
itals, such as papilloma, lipoma, etc., require no especial descrip¬ 
tion. The treatment is the same as when similar tumors are found 
elsewhere in the body (see p. 185). 

Cyst of Bartholin’s Gland. —The duct of Bartholin’s gland 
may become obstructed, leading to a distention of the cavity of the 
gland with mucus. This gives a fluctuating, rounded tumor at 
one side of the vaginal orifice, covered by normal skin, and freely 
movable on the deeper parts. It should be dissected out through 
an anteroposterior incision and the wound closed by suture. Or 
it may be cut into at the site of the normal opening of the duct, 
and drained with a small wick of silk threads until the artificial 
canal thus formed has become lined with epithelium. 

Suppuration of Bartholin’s gland is described on page 263. 

Urethral Caruncle. —This is a vascular tumor of the meatus, 
made up of connective tissue and hypertrophied papillae and nu¬ 
merous dilated blood-vessels. It is covered with epithelium. Such 
a little tumor is often extremely sensitive, so that the passage of 
urine or the slightest touch will give the patient great pain. 

The diagnosis is easily made if the labia are separated and 
the urethral orifice is inspected. There will then be noticed a 
bright red tumor, usually entirely outside of the urethra, but some¬ 
times partly within it, springing from the mucous membrane by 
a slender pedicle. Sometimes more than one such tumor exists. 

Treatment.— The caruncle should be thoroughly removed 
after anesthesia has been produced by cocain. On account of the 
delicacy of the overlying epithelium, the application of a bit of 
absorbent cotton saturated with a ten per cent solution of cocain 
will produce a complete anesthesia in a few minutes. The mucous 
membrane should then be divided around the pedicle, dissected 
back for a short distance, so that the base of the tumor may be 
divided below the level of the surrounding mucous membrane. 
The vessels should be ligated with fine catgut and the cuff of 
mucous membrane sutured with fine black silk so as completely to 
cover the raw area. The stitches should be removed in four days. 

Polyp of the Cervix. —A polyp of the cervix is a more or 
less rounded tumor composed of the same tissues as the mucous 




CARCINOMA 


271 


membrane from which it springs. It is usually distinctly pedicled. 
It generally springs from the mucous membrane of the cervical 
cana^ and gives rise to more or less hemorrhage and pain. As 
soon as it appears in the external os the cause of the hemorrhage 
is evident. Before such appearance the diagnosis is extremely 
difficult. 

Treatment. —The pedicle of a polyp may be seized with for¬ 
ceps and twisted off. If the point from which the polyp springs 
is not distinctly visible, the cervical canal should first be dilated. 
On account of the possibility that polypoid degeneration of the 
cervical mucous membrane may be the initial stage of cancer the 
operation should be a more thorough one in patients who have 
passed their fortieth year. A general anesthetic should then be 
given, the cervix fully dilated (p. 266) and the base of each 
polyp, or the mucous membrane from which the polyps spring, 
should be resected. In every case the excised tissue should be 
examined microscopically. 

Carcinoma. —Carcinoma of the vulva begins in a hard swell¬ 
ing which soon ulcerates, infiltrates, and affects the inguinal lym¬ 
phatic glands. In other words, its characteristics are those of 
cancer in other portions of the body. Owing to the abundant blood- 
supply of the parts its growth is rapid. Carcinoma of the vagina 
as a primary lesion is seldom seen. 

Carcinoma of the cervix is very common and may be recog¬ 
nized both by palpation and inspection as an indurated swelling, 
with rough surface, ulcerating, and having a putrid odor. There 
are, however, some cases of erosion of the cervix, due primarily 
to laceration and secondarily to inflammatory discharges from the 
uterus, which do not present the ordinary appearances of cancer, 
but which upon microscopical examination may prove to be malig¬ 
nant. In suspicious conditions of this kind it is important to 
remove a section of the ulcer for examination by a competent 
pathologist. This can be easily done through a bivalve or tubular 
speculum, the pain being prevented by the injection of a few drops 
of a two per cent cocain solution. 

Treatment.—A malignant tumor, whether beginning exter¬ 
nally or internally, should be thoroughly removed if possible. If 
this is not possible, it had better be left alone. Those who advo¬ 
cate a partial removal for the sake of getting rid of foul discharges 



» 

272 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

apparently forget that ulcers will soon form again, and that the 
patient will, sooner or later, be subjected to the annoyance of an 
ulcerating cancer, unless perchance she succumbs to the so-called 
palliative operation. 

No mention is made of benign tumors of the body of the 
uterus, or other abdominal tumors, since the consideration of such, 
lesions is wholly out of the range of minor surgery. 

ACQUIRED DEFORMITIES 

Relaxation of tlie Sphincter of the Bladder.—Inconti¬ 
nence of Urine. —Incontinence of urine is an affection of old age 
whose treatment is most unsatisfactory. With advancing years the 
sphincter of the bladder becomes relaxed until a woman finds it 
impossible to hold her water as long as she has been accustomed 
to do. If the relaxation of the sphincter is slight, incontinence 
will only take place when the patient coughs or otherwise suddenly 
increases the pressure upon the bladder. In more marked degrees 
of the trouble there is a constant dripping of the urine, which 
keeps the patient in a distressing condition not only for herself, 
but for those about her. This weakness is often increased by a 
local condition of cystocele or prolapse of the uterus. The possi¬ 
bility of an overfilled and overflowing bladder should be borne in 
mind, though this condition is less common in women than in men. 

Before condemning a patient to the constant use of a rubber 
urinal the urine should be drawn by catheter and carefully exam¬ 
ined so that its amount and character may be knowm. One should 
not forget the possible presence within the bladder or urethra of 
a calculus or other foreign body, or a polyp or other tumor, which 
may be the cause of the incontinence. Attempts should be made 
to stimulate the sphincter by massage, by astringent applications 
applied in the urethra or vaginally, by cold bathing, and by elec¬ 
tricity. If the urine is found to be neutral or alkaline, benzoic 
acid may be given, or the benzoate of soda ten grains a day. These 
drugs are irritating to the stomach and should therefore be given 
well diluted one hour after meals. More often the urine is scantv 

t/ 

or too acid, so that an abundance of drinking-water and alkaline 
diluents should be prescribed. Cystocele or prolapse of the urethra 
or uterus should be relieved by a pessary or cured by operation. 


RETENTION OF URINE 


273 


Incontinence of Childhood. —Incontinence of urine by night or 
by day is not uncommonly seen in both male and female children, 
but is more troublesome in girls than boys (see p. 220). The 
attention of the parents should be directed to the general condi¬ 
tions which favor this affection, and they should see that the child 
sleeps under light clothing and drinks plenty of water in the fore¬ 
noon and but little or nothing for some hours before going to bed. 
It is often of advantage to arrange the mattress so that the hips 
are slightly higher than the shoulders. Cold sponge baths night 
and morning are also of assistance in overcoming the trouble. In 
no case should a child be punished for a weakness it cannot avoid 
and which mortifies it extremely. Among the various drugs which 
have been tried with more or less success belladonna has attained 
quite a reputation, and its use is sometimes followed by marked 
improvement. The urine should always be examined, and if it 
is unduly acid, alkaline diluents should be given. In obstinate 
cases the occasional passage of a cold steel sound into the bladder 
will stimulate and strengthen the sphincter so as to increase 
its control. Another good plan is to give the child a measuring- 
glass, and encourage it to retain its water for a time after the 
first inclination to urinate is noticed. Such restraint should not 
be carried too far, the idea being a gradual strengthening of the 
muscles through systematic exercise. One can safely predict 
that the lack of control will disappear before the age of puberty 
is reached. 

Retention of Urine. — Catheterization". — Retention of 
urine in the female is rarely seen except after an operation or after 
childbearing. It is due sometimes to the anesthetic, sometimes to 
the changed abdominal pressure, sometimes to the operative wound 
in the immediate vicinity, and sometimes simply to the horizontal 
position. There are women who are unable to pass water lying 
down, even in health. 

The risk of catheterization is a slight one, but it should be 
avoided when possible. It is better, therefore, to postpone it until 
the patient has made some ineffectual attempts to empty the blad¬ 
der and feels pressure. This will usually mean the lapse of twelve 
or sixteen hours after an operation or delivery. After many gyne¬ 
cological operations the nature of the operation makes it unde¬ 
sirable to allow the patient to urinate. In such cases the bladder 



274 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


should be emptied regularly by catheter, without waiting for the 
patient’s sensations. 

Catheterization, which is so simple to one accustomed to its 
performance, may be very embarrassing to the beginner, especially 
if the nurse announces that she is unable to find the urethra. It is 
therefore worth description. 

The old practise of passing a catheter by touch has no place 
in modern aseptic technique. The operator should sterilize his 
hands or wear sterile gloves, although if he proceeds properly and 
a glass catheter is used this is not strictly necessary, for he will 
not touch any part of the catheter which enters the urethra. The 
patient flexes the thighs and separates the knees widely. If she 
is lying on a soft bed, a pillow should he placed under the hips to 
raise the vulva well above the level of the bed. With the thumb 
and fingers of one hand the operator separates the anterior part 
of the labia minora widely, so as to expose the vestibule. With 
the other hand he wipes the vestibule clean, using a sw r ab of ab¬ 
sorbent cotton wet with a mild antiseptic. He next drops the 
swab, and with the same hand takes the sterile catheter, near its 
outer end, and passes it gently into the meatus. The catheter 
should be wet with saline solution. Ho other lubricant is needed, 
unless the catheter is unduly large. It will readily follow the 
urethra to the bladder, and the urine at once streams out. When 
the bladder is empty, the forefinger is placed over the end of the 
catheter in order to prevent the escape of the urine as it is with¬ 
drawn. If a rubber catheter is used, some lubricant is generally 
necessary, and this fact, together with the necessity of grasping 
the catheter near the tip, makes it desirable that the hands of the 
operator shall be sterile. The irritation which follows the repeated 
use of a glass catheter is probably due to the fact that it is too 
large, or is taken from an irritating solution before insertion, or 
that it is not introduced with sufficient gentleness. 

Prolapse of Urethra. —The female urethra may prolapse 
from the meatus and cause much discomfort, or even sharp pain. 
The prolapse may be complete, that is, affecting the whole surface 
of the mucous membrane, or partial, only one side of the urethra 
being affected. Astringents will relieve symptoms in mild cases. 
In severer cases cauterization, both by heat and by chemicals, it 
often' tried, but usually proves unsatisfactory. It is better to ex- 


PROLAPSE OF UTERUS 


275 


cise the protruding membrane and to make an exact suture of the 
cut edges, using a sharply curved needle and fine black silk. If 
the prolapse is extensive the whole circle of mucous membrane 
must he removed and the wound closed with exactness. The best 
method of suturing is by a number of interrupted fine black silk 
stitches. The stitches should he removed in four or five days. 
This operation may he performed under cocain, applied on a cot¬ 
ton swab directly to the mucous membrane. A four per cent solu¬ 
tion should be used for the purpose. If it is found necessary 
to inject cocain, the area of mucous membrane to be removed 
should be marked out with a scalpel before the injection is made. 
Otherwise the swelling caused by the injection may easily 
mislead the operator as to the amount of tissue which it is neces¬ 
sary to excise. 

Another method of operating upon prolapse of the urethra is 
to make an incision through the mucous membrane of the vagina 
a little way above the orifice, and to draw out through this in¬ 
cision so much of the urethral mucous membrane as is considered 
to be superfluous. This is cut away and the wounds in urethra 
and vagina are sutured separately, the former at least with ab¬ 
sorbable sutures. 

Old Laceration of the Perineum. —The operation to re¬ 
store the perineum after an old laceration rests on the same prin¬ 
ciples as that to close a fresh wound in the perineum. The surface 
of the cicatrized area must, however, be dissected away before the 
sutures are inserted, and either removed entirely or left to project 
as a fold into the vagina. These operations require a general anes¬ 
thetic and a treatment in bed of not less than ten days or two 
weeks in order to secure a perfect result. Their details are given 
in every gynecological text-book. An operation to restore the 
perineal body is strongly to be advised as a preventive of future 
prolapse, even though the patient has no present symptoms. 

Prolapse of Uterus. —The uterus may sink so low down as 
to present itself partially or wholly outside the vaginal orifice. 
This condition is known as prolapse of the uterus and is usually 
found in women who have borne several children. Tor the occur¬ 
rence of a prolapse three things are necessary: a torn perineum, 
greatly relaxed vaginal walls, and a lengthening of the ligaments 

which normally hold the uterus in position. In addition, the whole 
20 


276 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 


uterus, or at least its cervix, is usually elongated and heavier than 
normal. 

A uterus which protrudes partly or wholly from the vagina 
causes the patient discomfort, prevents her from walking easily, 
and often makes it impossible for her to retain urine for more 
than an hour or two during the day. Moreover the cervical mu¬ 
cous membrane being unaccustomed to such exposure, often ulcer¬ 
ates, so that a foul discharge may be added to the other discom¬ 
forts of the sufferer. 

Treatment. —In simple cases if the outlet of the vagina is 
not too much widened, a retroversion pessary (Fig. 133) may cure 



Fig. 133. —Retrqversion Pessary which in Many Cases will keep within 
the Vagina an otherwise Prolapsed Uterus. 

the patient of all symptoms. In many cases, however, the pessary 
will gradually work out of the vagina as the patient walks about. 
Special supports have been devised, but the pressure which they 
make upon the cervix is often painful and may cause ulceration. 
The usual form of apparatus consists of a belt to which is at¬ 
tached posteriorly a spring. The spring passes between the legs 
of the patient and curves upward into the vagina. At its ex¬ 
tremity is a ball or else a little cup which fits over the cervix. 
Such apparatus is cumbersome, hard to keep clean, and should 
not be advised whenever an operation is possible. A T-bandage 
will sometimes give temporary relief if the uterus is crowded well 




ADHESIONS OF THE CLITORIS 


277 


upward by several large cotton tampons pushed into the vagina 
before the perineal strap of the bandage is secured. 

Several operations have been advised for prolapse of the uterus. 
The perineum may be restored by suture. The caliber of the 
vagina may be reduced by partial excision and suture of its walls. 
A hypertrophied cervix may be amputated, the round ligaments 
may be shortened, the uterus may be suspended by suture to the 
abdominal wall, or finally a complete hysterectomy may be per¬ 
formed. This last operation, while entailing a somewhat greater 
risk than the others, has usually the merit of not being followed by 
recurrence. 

Fistula of the Vagina, etc. —Fistula) between the ureters 
and vagina, or bladder and vagina, or urethra and vagina, or 
vagina and rectum may be due to necrosis of the septa between 
these various tubes, brought about by long continued pressure in 
childbirth, or as the result of an accident, or as the result of in¬ 
flammation, or they may be due to malignant ulceration. 

The existence of a fistula is made known by the passage of gas 
or fecal matter from the rectum into the vagina or bladder; or 
of urine into the vagina or rectum. Sometimes a probe can be 
passed through the fistula or digital examination may demonstrate 
its presence. 

Fistula from a benign cause may be cured by a plastic opera¬ 
tion, many ingenious forms of which have been devised. Suc¬ 
cess is most likely to follow an operation in which the defects 
in the two mucous surfaces are closed in such a manner that the 
suture line in one organ is not exactly opposite the suture line in 
the other. Of course no attempt should be made to close a fistula 
due to malignant ulceration unless the tumor has first been wholly 
removed. 

CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES 

Adhesions of the Clitoris. —Adhesions of the prepuce to 
the clitoris may wall in sebaceous material, and give rise to irri¬ 
tation which in turn may induce habits of masturbation. \ his 
condition should therefore be sought for in cases of unexplained 
reflex irritation. The clitoris is exposed by drawing outward and 
upward the upper ends of the labia minora, at the same time 
pushing* the fingers backward against the symphysis, in order to 


278 AFFECTIONS OF THE FEMALE GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 

make the head of the clitoris j)roject forward. The technic is 
similar to that performed to uncover the head of the penis of a 
fat squirming baby. If adhesions are present, this manipulation 
will make them appear. 

Treatment. —The parts should he saturated with twenty per 
cent cocain solution for ten minutes. The prepuce can then be 
withdrawn without pain, and while tension is made upon it, a 
small flat probe should he passed around the head of the clitoris 
to break up all adhesions. The raw surfaces should he smeared 
with cold cream. The parts should he washed daily with warm 
water, and this retraction and anointing should he repeated 
every second day for a week or two to prevent the reformation of 
adhesions. If there is a redundancy of prepuce, it may he ex¬ 
cised and the wound sutured with fine black silk. This is a 
material aid in breaking up the habit of masturbation, as the 
practise is interrupted for a few days by the soreness and the 
changed sensation assists the child in not resuming the habit. 

Imperforate Hymen. —The hymen may he without an 
opening. As a result of this malformation, when menstruation 
first occurs, the escape of blood from the vagina may he pre¬ 
vented. Such a patient will have the usual subjective symptoms 
of menstruation without any flow of blood. Under these circum¬ 
stances a careful examination will reveal a cystic distention of 
the hymen, and the dark blue color of the concealed fluid will 
at once explain matters. An incision should he made and the 
blood and blood clots allowed to escape. 

In other cases the lack of development may extend higher up 
and the vagina he partly or wholly absent or the cervix he with¬ 
out an opening. 

Stenosis of the Cervix. —An imperfect development of 
the cervical canal is one of the commonest causes of dysmenor¬ 
rhea. The opening may he so small that it will only admit the 
passage of a small probe. This may he sufficient for the escape 
of fluid blood, but not for the easy passage of even a small blood 
clot. The result is a contraction of the uterus, continued until 
the cervix is sufficiently dilated to permit the clot to escape. The 
pain thus caused may he very severe, even causing unconscious¬ 
ness. The stenosis may disappear with repeated menstruation 
or with the sexual stimulus of marriage, hut such is not al- 


STENOSIS OF THE CERVIX 


279 


ways the case. It is permanently overcome in most cases by 
pregnancy. 

Treatment. —It is surprising how many young women are 
allowed to suffer unnecessary pain during the first day or two 
of menstruation year after year, when a slight operation and 
a little subsequent treatment would avoid it. The indication 
under such circumstances for dilatation of the cervical canal is 
clear enough. The technic of its performance is given on page 
266. In these cases it should 
not he followed by curettage, as 
the uterine mucous membrane is 
in no wise at fault. When the 
cervix has been dilated, a hard 
rubber plug (Fig. 134) should 
he inserted and left in place 
for two or three months. This 
should he about 22 or 25 French 
catheter scale, and should he 
long enough to reach through 


the internal os, as otherwise it 
may slip out of place. These 
plugs are sometimes made with 
a lateral groove to permit the 
escape of blood during menstruation. This is unnecessary, as 
the blood escapes around the plug and the groove makes a lodging- 



Fig. 134. —Hard Rubber Plugs for 
the Cure of Stenosis of the Cer¬ 
vix. 


place for blood and mucus. If symptoms of obstruction lecur 
in a few months after the removal of the plug, it should he 
reinserted. 

This operation can he painlessly performed with cocain, but 
in many cases the sensibilities of the patient render a general anes¬ 
thetic desirable. 


A hard rubber plug of this shape acts as a valve and will pre¬ 
vent the entrance of seminal fluid into the uterus. The dilata 
tion of the Cervical canal which follows its use is favorable to 
pregnancy after the plug has been removed. 




SECTION y 


AFFECTIONS OF THE ANUS AND 

KECTUM 


CHAPTER XI 

INJURIES AND INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS 

AND RECTUM 

METHODS OF EXAMINATION 

Examination of the Patient. —There are two positions of 
the patient which are satisfactory for an office examination of the 
anus and lower portion of the rectum. If the patient is a man 
he may stand with his back toward the light and bend well for¬ 
ward, resting his hands upon the seat of a chair. This position 
affords the examiner an excellent view of the region of the anus, 
and it also facilitates digital examination, especially of the ante¬ 
rior portion of the rectum. 

» 

The other position, which is to be employed with women, and 
which is preferred by some surgeons in all cases, is the lateral 
recumbent position, with both thighs flexed upon the abdomen. 
The thigh which is uppermost should be flexed a little farther than 
the other. 

Examination begins with inspection not merely of the skin, 
but also of the anal canal. The folds of the anus should be sepa¬ 
rated and the anal mucous membrane should be drawn out a 
little at a time, and the patient should also be directed to strain, 
so that the examiner may see how much venous dilatation is 
thereby produced. 

Palpation is chiefly of service to reveal the extent of inflam¬ 
matory exudation, and to show the existence of a hidden fistula. 

If a sinus exists, the passage of a probe will sometimes reveal 
its direction and extent. This is usually a painful method of 
examination, and the knowledge thereby gained is not always 
very extensive. 

280 



EXAMINATION OF THE PATIENT 


281 


Digital examination is of the greatest importance. A rubber 
glove may be worn or the finger may be covered with a finger cot. 
The latter is thinner than a glove, and so does not dull the sensa¬ 
tion to the same degree, hut it does not protect the base of the 
finger from contamination. Even by the thinnest finger cot the 
tactile sense is somewhat obscured, as any one may prove for 
himself by making tests upon various rough objects. 

The finger should be well oiled, preferably with a heavy lubri¬ 
cant, such as vaseline, or one of the preparations from Irish moss. 
It should be inserted slowly and rotated during the insertion, in 
order to clear the folds of mucous membrane. When the finger 
has been fully inserted, all of the rectum within reach should be 
systematically palpated with the palmar surface of the finger. It 
is possible to recognize in this way a wound, impaction of feces, 
a foreign body, a fissure, an abscess, a fistula, inflamnlatory thick¬ 
ening of the rectal wall, a stricture, a benign or malignant tumor, 
or a hemorrhoid. 

One can usually obtain, far more knowledge from a digital ex¬ 
amination made when the rectum is empty; but since it may be 
desirable to know what is the usual condition of the rectum, it is 
just as well to make an examination when the patient first presents 
himself, and if the rectum is found to be full of feces, the bowel 
should be thoroughly emptied by a cathartic or enema, and a sec¬ 
ond examination made. 

There is one other position in which a patient should some¬ 
times be examined i namely, a squatting position. In this posi¬ 
tion, and especially if the patient strains, the examiner’s finger 
will reach portions of the rectum which are inacessible in other 
positions. Furthermore, if the normal planes of tissue have been 
in any way weakened, this fact will be manifest in this position 
as in no other. This is equally true of excessive valvular forma 
tion within the rectum, and of hernial protrusions outside of it. 

Inspection of the interior of the rectum by means of a procto¬ 
scope will often yield valuable knowledge without an anesthetic. 
The instrument used should be short, not more than three or four 
inches in length, and preferably an inch or more in diameter 
(Eig. 135). If a tube of much smaller caliber is employed, the 
mucous membrane will lie in such deep folds that a great deal 
of it will escape observation. If the hips are higher than the 


282 


INJURIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


abdomen, and the clothing is all loosened, the intestines will fall 
away from the pelvis, and the lower portions of the rectum will 
gape open and fill with air. This facilitates very much the inspec¬ 
tion through the proctoscope. The knee-chest position is espe- 


Fig. 135.—A Suitable Rectal Speculum for Office Examinations. 

cially good for this purpose. In many patients, even though no 
inflammation he present, the passage of the proctoscope excites a 
painful spasm of the sphincter ani. This method of examination 
is not suited to cases in which acute inflammation is present. 

Stretching of the Sphincter Ani. —It may he necessary to 
stretch the sphincter ani for purposes of examination, or as a 
means of treatment, or as a preliminary to treatment. It is best 
performed in the following manner: The patient should he thor¬ 
oughly anesthetized with gas, ether, or chloroform, and should 
he in either the dorsal position, the legs being held by a crutch or 




















STRETCHING OF THE SPHINCTER ANi 


283 



an assistant; or else lie should lie in the lateral position, with 
the knees well drawn np toward the chest. The anal region should 
be cleansed with soap and warm water. The two forefingers of the 
operator should he lubricated and pushed well up into the rectum. 
Their palmar surfaces should be directed away from each other. 
Steady pressure should next he made to separate the two fingers, - 
and this pressure should he exerted in different directions antero- 
posteriorly, laterally, and obliquely. As the sphincter gives way, 
a third finger should he inserted, and then a fourth. The sphinc¬ 
ter cannot he considered dilated unless the two fingers of eacli 
hand may be pressed against the ischia on either side without the 
use of much force. Some oper¬ 
ators prefer to stretch the sphinc¬ 
ter with the thumbs. Digital dila¬ 
tation in the manner described is 
safer and otherwise more satisfac¬ 
tory than dilatation by means of 
any instrument. The mucous 
membrane at the anal margin will 
usually he cracked here and there, 
hut these superficial breaks in the 
mucous membrane require no 
treatment other than that of 
cleanliness. The patient may get 
up and go about as soon as the 
dizziness caused by the anesthetic 
has passed off. 

Stretching of the sphincter 
often causes some hemorrhage in 
the deep tissues, so that on the fol¬ 
lowing day the anus may be sur¬ 
rounded by a black and blue zone. 

This will disappear without treat¬ 
ment in a few days. 

Stretching the sphincter great¬ 
ly facilitates inspection of the rec¬ 
tum through a speculum. A bi¬ 
valve instrument (Dig* 136) can then be employed and turned 
in different directions, so as to give a view of the whole canal. 


Fig. 136. —Bivalve Rectal Specu¬ 
lum. A good instrument to em¬ 
ploy after the sphincter has been 
stretched. 






284 


INJURIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


INJURIES 

Wounds of the anal region are for the most part due to 
falls upon sharp objects; or they may he the result of violence 
inflicted by the patient or others. Slight wounds may follow the 
passage through the anal canal of some sharp object, such as a 
splinter or fish bone which projects from a fecal mass. In making 
the examination of a patient who has fallen upon a sharp object 
it is well to remember that a small foreign body may pass the anus 
and penetrate the wall of the rectum without leaving any external 
sign of injury; hence the importance of a speculum examination 
in such cases. 

Treatment.— The first indication for treatment is the control 
of hemorrhage. External hemorrhage will be noticed at once, and 
may be controlled by pressure or styptics, such as adrenalin or per- 
oxid of hydrogen. If a vessel is lacerated above the sphincter, 
hemorrhage may take place into the rectum and not make itself 
manifest for some time. Under such circumstances the pas¬ 
sage of a speculum or of a rectal catheter or any other tube 
will show at once whether the bleeding is continuous. If 
so, the sphincter should be dilated and the ruptured artery 
ligated. 

If the wound is so placed as to> be pulled upon by the dila¬ 
tion and contraction of the sphincter, which takes place during 
defecation, it is better to stretch the sphincter fully, so as to insure 
rest to the wound. This not only adds to the patient’s comfort, 
but hastens repair. 

W ounds in this vicinity should be treated like all other wounds 
by thorough cleansing, and if of sufficient size, by a careful suture. 
Although exposed to contamination, wounds of this region heal 
promptly in many cases, thanks to the free blood-supply. Fine 
black silk is the best suture material to employ for the portion 
of the wound which is external. The portion of the wound which 
is so situated that the stitches cannot be easily removed should 
be sutured with plain catgut or a fine ten day chromicized gut. 
If the wall of the rectum is wounded, the possibility of peritoneal 
involvement should be borne in mind. 

Hemorrhage.— Hemorrhage into the rectum or from the anus 
may be due to a gross injury or to a small ulceration occurring 


HEMORRHAGE 


285 


in connection with hemorrhoids, prolapse, or tumors. Further¬ 
more, the hemorrhage following operation upon the rectum, while 
not strictly speaking within the domain of minor surgery, often 
shows itself after the operator is out of reach, and its treatment 
should therefore he understood by every practitioner. 

Treatment. —As stated above, bleeding from an external 
wound or ulcer is readily controlled by pressure, ligation, or 
styptics, such as peroxid of hydrogen or adrenalin. If there is 
capillary oozing, as from a prolapsed hemorrhoid, the appli¬ 
cations of swabs wrung out of very hot water will usually con¬ 
trol it. 

Hemorrhage from a vessel so far up that it is not included in 
the sphincter ani is far more dangerous, and demands prompt and 
thorough treatment. When this follows operation within a few 
hours it either comes from a vessel which has not been ligated 
or from which the ligature has slipped. The usual symptoms are 
these: The patient will complain of some pain in the rectum, and 
state that he feels that his bowels are going to move. The nurse 
or doctor will probably tell him that he is mistaken, and that his 
feelings are due to the operation or to the presence of gauze in 
the rectum, if a plug of this material has been inserted. In a 
few minutes the patient will again insist that his bowels are going 
to move, and the passage of four or more ounces of fluid blood 
will prove the correctness of his statement. Under such circum¬ 
stances any gauze should be removed from the rectum, the bowel 
irrigated with as hot a sterile saline solution as the patient can 
bear, and if the flow of blood continues, an anesthetic should be 
given, the sphincter dilated, a bivalve speculum inserted, and the 
bleeding point exposed and ligated. 

This accident is peculiarly liable to follow operations upon 
internal hemorrhoids, performed under cocain, with incomplete 
or no dilatation of the sphincter. The cocain, or mixture of 
cocain and adrenalin deceives the operator in regard to the 
amount of bleeding possible from the cut surface, and when 
the astringent action of these drugs passes off the real mischief 
begins. 

There is also the so called secondary hemorrhage, due to the 
opening of an artery by the sloughing away of the ligature which 
has been put around it. This is most likely to follow when masses 


286 


INJURIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


of other tissue are included with the artery in the ligature, a 
method of technic advised by some operators upon hemorrhoids. 
Such secondary hemorrhage may therefore occur five or seven or 
even ten days after the operation. Its symptoms and treatment 
are the same as those given above. 

Foreign Bodies and Impacted Feces. —Foreign bodies are 
frequently inserted into the rectum, either for the purpose of sex¬ 
ual excitement or to assist in defecation or in urination. Insane 
persons sometimes pass foreign bodies into the rectum. The rec¬ 
tum, especially in old people, is tolerant of foreign bodies, owing 
no doubt to the fact that in civilized life many persons habitually 
allow fecal matter to remain in the rectum for hours or possibly 
for days. Such hardened balls of feces may become so firm that 
they cannot be evacuated and require the treatment of foreign 
bodies. 

Treatment. —The extraction of a foreign body is a simple 
process after the sphincter has been dilated (p. 282). Smaller 
objects may be extracted with the finger or a dressing forceps 
guided by the finger. In this way the patient may be saved the 
annoyance of a general anesthetic. A hardened ball of feces can 
usually be broken up digitally and extracted piecemeal by the 
finger or by dressing forceps or washed out by repeated injections, 
after it has been broken up. The rectum should have rest for a 
few days to recover its tone and to allow for healing of the abra¬ 
sions which may be produced. Ilot external applications are grate¬ 
ful to the patient. 

INFLAMMATIONS 

Intertrigo. —Intertrigo, or chafing of the skin, may occur 
on any portion of the body where two skin surfaces come into con¬ 
tact. It is especially troublesome between the folds of the but¬ 
tocks. It may be due to a lack of cleanliness, to irritating dis¬ 
charges, or to an unusual amount of exercise. When due to the 
last named cause, it may be so severe that blisters develop. When 
due to irritating discharges, if it is long continued it may pass 
into eczema. 

The essentials of treatment are cleanliness, separation of the 
folds of the skin by gauze or cotton saturated with a cooling 
lotion, or the reduction of friction between opposing surfaces by 


PRURITUS ANI 


287 


means of a simple ointment, such as cold cream or a dusting pow¬ 
der. If unusual exercise is to be taken, the chafing can be pre¬ 
vented in many instances by a preliminary application of cold 
cream to the opposed surfaces. 

Pruritus Ani. —This name is given to the troublesome itch¬ 
ing about the anus which may occur at any age, hut is espe¬ 
cially common among elderly persons. In children it is often 
due to pinworms. In adults it may he caused by an irritating 
discharge from the rectum or vagina, or it may he due to hemor¬ 
rhoids or to fissures. In every case the affected part should he 
examined in a good light. The folds of the anus should he sepa¬ 
rated in order to expose hidden fissures. If nothing is found 
externally a speculum should he passed, and the mucous mem¬ 
brane of the rectum examined. Digital examination should also 
be made, in order to determine the presence of hemorrhoids 
and the amount of contraction of the sphincter. The stools 
should also he examined, since they may be of an irritating 
character. 

Treatment. —If any cause for the pruritus is found, it 
should be removed. If there are pinworms, a pint of water con¬ 
taining an ounce of the fluid extract of quassia should he in¬ 
jected into the rectum, and kept there fifteen minutes. In a 
child a less quantity will suffice. This treatment should be re¬ 
peated on two or three succeeding days. If a fissure or hemor¬ 
rhoid or ulcer of the rectum or other obvious cause of pruritus 
exists, suitable treatment should he instituted. 

In all cases errors in diet should he avoided. The patient 
should give up alcohol, tobacco, and coffee. Constipation should 
be corrected. The rectum should he regularly emptied, and kept 
empty, by saline laxatives or enemata. If the sphincter is tight, 
it should be stretched. This may he performed by the doctor’s 
fingers, the patient having been rendered unconscious by laughing 
gas; or a gradual dilatation may he preferred. The latter is best 
performed by the patient, who every night upon retiring should 
insert a hard rubber rectal dilator, and leave it in place for fif¬ 
teen to thirty minutes. These dilators come in three sizes. After 
a few nights the patient will he able to pass the largest size with¬ 
out pain. When the dilator has been removed, the patient should 
liberally apply the following ointment: 



288 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


Camphora;. 

Menthol . 

Ac. carbol. 

Ac. boric. 

Calomel .. 

Ung. zinc, ox.q. s. ad. 

M. 


gr. 4; 
gr. 3; 
gr. 30; 
gr. 10; 
gr. 10; 
oz. 1. 


This treatment should be continued every night for a month, 
or until the sphincter is looser than normal. 

Some patients are relieved by the application of hot or cold 
water two or three times a day. This may be followed by an 
application of a powder composed of one part each of camphor 
and chloral rubbed together and added to thirty parts of starch. 

The itching may be stopped temporarily by the application 
of a solution containing ten per cent or less of resorcin; or of 
one containing five per cent or less of carbolic acid. Another 
method of using carbolic acid is to apply it pure, and wash it off 
almost immediately with alcohol. This will sometimes stop the 
itching for several days. The surface may be painted with a 
mixture of equal parts of the tincture of iodine and the fluid 
extract of hamamelis. 

If the skin is excoriated or inflamed by reason of scratching, 
it is a good plan to keep a fold of gauze between the nates, wet 
with some cooling lotion or smeared with vaseline containing 20 
grains of carbolic acid and 10 grains of cocain to the ounce. 

Proctitis. —Inflammation of the rectum, or proctitis, may be 
either acute or chronic, and the latter is again divided into atrophic 
and hypertrophic proctitis. 

The acute form of the disease may be due to mechanical in¬ 
jury or to a sudden change in temperature, as when a person after 
exercise sits upon cold, damp ground; or to chemical irritation 
following the ingestion of improper food or to intestinal fermenta¬ 
tion or to bacterial infection, either from the feces or from 
objects introduced into the rectum. 

The symptoms of heat, fulness, and pain are common to 
catarrhal inflammation of all mucous membranes, and in addi¬ 
tion there is a constant or oft repeated desire for evacuation. 
Usually the movements are fluid or mixed with mucus and blood. 








FISSURE 


289 


Treatment. —The bowels should he irrigated for cleansing 
purposes, and this should he followed by a continuous irrigation 
for ten or fifteen minutes, with either hot or cold normal saline 
solution. This may he carried out through a specially devised 
double current rectal tube, or, as is more comfortable to many 
patients, two small soft rubber catheters may be employed, one 
for the inflow and one for the outflow. After the irrigation, a 
suppository of opium and iodoform should be inserted, or one 
containing iodoform and tannic acid, for in these cases opium and 
morphine must be used with caution. At least twice a day the 
saline irrigation should be followed by a stimulating enema. Vari¬ 
ous solutions have been recommended for this purpose, such as 
nitrate of silver, 1: 3,000; boric acid, 3 per cent; acetate of lead, 
1: 500; fluid extract of hydrastis an ounce in two quarts of hot 
water, etc. 

In chronic proctitis similar measures are to be employed. 
Usually the cause is a long continued one, and it may not be possi¬ 
ble to remove it entirely. At least one may attend to the diet and 
keep the stools soft with castor oil or one of the milder salines. 
The astringent enemas may be somewhat stronger than in acute 
proctitis, but it is better to begin with the milder solutions and 
to increase their strength gradually as the effect is evident. Per¬ 
sistent ulcers may be sprayed or swabbed with still stronger appli¬ 
cations. 

Fissure. —Fissure of the anus is a crack in the mucous mem¬ 
brane at the orifice of the anal canal, and situated generally near 
the anterior or posterior commissure. It is due, in most cases at 
least, to the scratching of the mucous membrane by the passage 
of hard fecal masses and infection of the small wound. The espe¬ 
cial development of the sinuses of Morgagni near the commissures 
is thought to determine the frequent development of fissures in 
these situations. 

In its early stages a fissure gives the patient only a little dis¬ 
comfort. There is a stinging pain as the fecal mass passes the 
fissure, and a drop or two of .blood may be found either on the 
expelled feces or on the paper used to cleanse the anus. There 
is also a feeling of heat or a throbbing dull pain for a few min¬ 
utes. As the fissure becomes deeper and more indurated these 
slight symptoms are greatly increased. In an extreme case the 


290 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


thought of defecation fills the patient with terror, and the entrance 
of the fecal mass into the anal canal excites a violent spasm of the 
sphincter, which makes the act of defecation tenfold more diffi¬ 
cult. The pain thus caused may last for hours and seriously 
interfere with the patient’s daily life. 

Treatment. —The treatment of fissure that can he carried 
out by the patient is most important, since under its influence 
many fissures of slight degree will permanently heal. The bowels 
should he made regular and the stools semisolid by changes in 
diet and such laxatives as are found to agree best with the par¬ 
ticular patient. Straining at stool is to he avoided. Lubrication 
of the anal canal before defecation will do much to prevent the 
formation of a fissure and to favor the healing of one already 
existing. The patient can accomplish this by injecting a small 
syringeful of oil or by passing his greased finger into the anus. 
After defecation the anus should he washed, not rubbed with a 
dry and perhaps stiff paper. If the patient will not take this 
trouble he can at least expectorate upon the paper before apply¬ 
ing it. The alkaline viscid saliva is non-irritating to the mucous 
membrane. 

If the pain is marked, the patient should lie down for a half- 
hour after defecation, holding a hot water bottle or a hot wet 
sponge firmly against the anus. 

By the measures above mentioned patients will succeed in 
curing many small fissures and in preventing many more. In 
severer cases these home remedies must he supplemented by treat¬ 
ment by the physician. Two plans have been found reliable, 
namely, treatment of the wound by antiseptics and stimulating 
applications and stretching or division of the sphincter ani. 

If applications are decided upon, the fissure should he cleansed 
daily. This is best accomplished through a small conical speculum 
with a window in one side. Only mild antiseptic solutions should 
be employed, such as bichlorid of mercury, 1: 10,000; boric acid, 
2 per cent; or peroxid of hydrogen, 1 part to water 8 parts. When 
the fissure is clean and dry it should be painted with the stimu¬ 
lating liquid. Balsam of Peru (40 per cent in oil); ichthyol, 20 
per cent in water; silver nitrate, 2 to 5 per cent; argyrol or one 
of the other newer silver preparations in 10 to 20 per cent solutions 
are all good remedies. 



ABSCESS 


291 


By far the best treatment in many cases is the stretching of 
the sphincter ani under a general anesthetic (p. 282). This at 
once stops all spasm of the sphincter, does away with most of the 
pain during and after defecation, frees the fissure from injuri¬ 
ous contact with the fecal mass in its passage, and without other 
treatment in many cases will effect a rapid cure. 

During the stretching the fissure will probably he cracked 
open, hut if care is taken not to make the pull all the while in 
one direction, the deepening of the fissure will not he serious. In 
fact, this very tearing open of the fissure itself has been said to 
he one of the chief elements in the rapid healing which follows 
stretching of the sphincter. This probably is not so; at any rate 
there are sufficient other grounds on which to explain the good 
results of this method of treatment. 

There is still another method of treatment which has its advo¬ 
cates, and that is division of the external sphincter through the 
fissure. If the fissure should happen to he exactly in the anterior 
or posterior commissure, the incision may he made to one or both 
sides of it. While this method of treatment is unquestionably 
followed by a cure, it is difficult to see why one should enlarge 
the existing wound or add two fresh wounds, when the relaxation 
of the sphincter can he equally obtained by digital dilatation. 

Abscess. —An abscess in the vicinity of the anus or rectum 
is generally called an ischiorectal abscess. Strictly speaking, many 
of the abscesses found in this vicinity are not situated in the ischio¬ 
rectal space. The term is, however, so well established that it 
will probably remain in use, at any rate for the deeper abscesses 
of the vicinity. 

It is well to recognize at least four types of abscess in this 
vicinity: (1) A cutaneous furuncle or boil; (2) an abscess beneath 
the skin at the margin of the anus, sometimes called a marginal 
abscess; (3) an abscess within the wall of the rectum, sometimes 
called an intramural or submucous abscess; and (4) an abscess 
outside of the rectum, which may be designated a perirectal or 
ischiorectal abscess. A still further differentiation is made by 
rectal specialists, but this classification is sufficient for practical 
purposes. 

The source of infection in many abscesses can be determined. 
Thus it is evident that a furuncle starts around the root of a hair 



292 


INFLAMMATIONS OF TILE ANUS AND RECTUM 


or from some abrasion in the skin. In marginal abscess and in a 
submucous abscess the infection enters through a fissure or some 
other break of the overlying skin or mucous membrane. Many 
ischiorectal abscesses have their origin in some wound or ulcer of 
the rectum; others are extensions of one of the three simpler types 
of abscesses mentioned. In still other cases no entering point for 
the infection can be discovered, and the determination of the site 
of the abscess seems to follow a bruise, or unwonted exercise, or 
sitting on damp ground, etc. 

In the majority of superficial and deep abscesses of the anal 
region the pus contains bacilli coli or streptococci or staphylococci 
or tubercle bacilli. This is their order of frequency according to 
Gant. 

The symptoms are those of abscess everywhere. If the ab¬ 
scess is small and superficial (Fig. 137), it will not give much 



Fig. 137.— Superficial or Marginal Abscess. Duration one week. Patient 

aged thirty years. 

pain except during defecation or when pressed upon. In other 
cases the pain is constant and intense. The deeper abscesses are 
usually situated either in the right or left ischiorectal fossa. Oc¬ 
casionally they extend across the posterior commissure; rarely 
across the anterior. Left to themselves, most of the abscesses 
tend to “ point ” through the skin or into the rectum (Fig. 138); 
others burrow upward into the pelvis, and thereby add to the 




ABSCESS 


293 


gravity of the situation. When the abscess bursts, either through 
the skin or into the rectum, there is a sudden discharge of pus, 
and an equally sudden relief of symptoms. Such a rupture usu¬ 
ally drains the abscess very imperfectly, so that there will be a 



Fig. 138.—A Larger and Deeper Ischiorectal Abscess. Duration three weeks 

Patient aged twenty-two years. 

more or less constant flow of pus, with partial subsidence of the 
induration, and a fistula which opens either into the rectum or 
through the skin, or in both directions, as the case may he (see 
p. 295). 

Treatment. —Treatment of an abscess of any one of the four 
forms mentioned should be surgical; that is, the abscess should 
he opened with sufficient freedom to permit the easy escape of 
the pus, and the incision should be maintained by a drain or other¬ 
wise until the abscess cavity heals by granulation.* A submucous 
abscess should be incised longitudinally ; a marginal one, radially. 
All other abscesses of this region should be opened by an incision 
which is parallel to the fibers of the sphincter muscles. Such an 
incision will correspond more or less perfectly to an arc of a cir¬ 
cle drawn around the anus. 

While a small abscess may be opened without much pain to 
the patient by first freezing the skin and then injecting cocain, a 
general anesthetic is advisable for three reasons: It saves the 
patient from any pain; it enables the operator to explore mor^ 






294 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


fully the deeper portions of the abscess, if such exist; and it per¬ 
mits him to stretch the sphincter. This 'will enable the operator 
to determine whether the abscess communicates with or closely 
approaches to the rectum, and it also makes subsequent defeca¬ 
tion much easier, and thus hastens the patient’s recovery. 

The steps of the operation are these: The patient is anes¬ 
thetized and placed either on his hack, with his thighs well flexed, 
or else upon the affected side. In the latter case the upper thigh 
should he flexed more than the lower. A preliminary cleansing 
of the lower bowel and rectum by cathartics and enema is painful 
and may be omitted. The external parts are cleansed, the sphinc¬ 
ter ani is dilated to a certain extent, the rectum is emptied by irri¬ 
gation, and the abscess cavity is incised either radially or cir¬ 
cumferentially, according to the principles stated above. The 
edges of the wound are retracted, and its cavity is irrigated with 
hot saline solution, and explored with the finger or a blunt pointed 
probe. Two points should he determined, whether the pus has 
burrowed in any direction, so that an extension of the incision 
is necessary, and secondly, whether the abscess cavity communi¬ 
cates with the rectum. To determine the latter, one finger is 
inserted in the rectum while a probe is passed into the different 
portions of the abscess cavity. If the probe touches the finger, or 
comes so close to it that only mucous membrane intervenes, all of 
the tissue between the finger and the probe should he divided by 
a radial incision (see the treatment of fistula, p. 297). 

The cavity of the abscess should he irrigated with saline and 
drained with gauze. It should not he curetted, since the removal 
of the necrotic lining of the cavity in this manner will simply 
destroy the adjacent cellular tissue; nor should septa he broken 
down unless they are so placed as to interfere with drainage. 
They almost invariably represent blood-vessels which have been 
able to maintain their vitality in spite of the infection around 
them, and they will prove of assistance in the repair of the wound. 
The gauze used for drainage may be impregnated with iodoform 
or creolin or nosophen or covered with glutol. The cavity should 
not be packed ; only sufficient gauze should be used to keep the 
walls apart. 

If the abscess is small, so that the incision is short, it is well 
to remove from the center of the incision on one side a triangular 


FISTULA 


295 


piece of skin. This will facilitate drainage and keep the cut 
edges of the skin from uniting before the abscess cavity has time 
to fill with granulations. 

Moist dressings should be employed, at least until granula¬ 
tion is well established. The outer dressing should be changed as 
often as it becomes soiled; the gauze drainage in the wound should 
not be changed for the first three or four days. After the first 
week the wound may be drained with gauze soaked with balsam 
of Peru, as this does not readily adhere to the wound, and dry 
gauze may be used externally. In many cases it is not necessary 
for the patient to remain in bed. 

If the wound does not heal completely within a reasonable 
time, it is probably either tuberculous or communicates with the 
rectum. The latter point may usually be determined by the probe. 
The former may be inferred from the sluggish appearance of the 
sinus and from the amount of induration around it, and from the 
existence of tuberculosis elsewhere in the body. It can be defi¬ 
nitely determined by the microscopical examination of a portion 
of the wall of the sinus removed under cocain. 

If an ischiorectal abscess is known to be tuberculous at the 
time of operation the treatment should be more radical than that 
outlined above. The abscess cavity should be incised, irrigated, 
and explored as there stated. The edges of the wound should be 
fully retracted, and all infiltrated tissue dissected away with scal¬ 
pel or scissors. The life of the patient may depend upon the 
thoroughness with which this is done. Bleeding points should 
then be secured, and the wound drained and dressed as stated 
above. An exception should be made in case the person has in¬ 
curable tuberculosis in the lungs or elsewhere. Under such cir¬ 
cumstances the operation should be limited to simple drainage. 

Fistula. —The ordinary fistula in ano is simply a partially 
healed abscess, the complete healing of which does not take place, 
either because drainage is imperfect, or because fecal matter and 
gas enter the fistula from the rectum, or because the fistula is sur¬ 
rounded by an inflammatory process (tuberculosis, syphilis, etc.) 
which the body cannot overcome (Big. 139). 

Bor practical purposes fistuke about the anus are of four kinds: 
either blind external, or blind internal, or complete, having both 
an internal and an external opening, or complex. The first three 


296 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


terms are sufficiently descriptive. Under the last we shall here 
include not merely fistula 1 with more than one branch, but those 


Fig. 139. —Fistula Accompanying a Syphilitic Stricture of the Rectum. Fe¬ 
male patient, aged forty-four years. 

with openings into the vulva, vagina, urethra, or bladder, as well 
as fistula; due to disease of hone. 

Diagnosis. —The symptoms of fistula are: The discharge more 
or less constantly of a small quantity of mucus, mixed possibly 
with blood or fecal matter; more or less swelling, induration, and 
tenderness, symptoms which are more marked when the fistula has 
no external opening, or, having one, drains imperfectly. The 
diagnosis is usually made by the patient before he seeks medical 
advice. 

Examination will show the external opening, if one exists. 
It is usually surrounded by a slight elevation of the skin or mu¬ 
cous membrane, although it is sometimes hidden in a fold, and 
is sometimes temporarily covered with intact epithelium. Pal¬ 
pation with the finger-tips will show the presence of induration, 
whether the fistula opens externally or not. The indurated tissue 
may or may not be tender. Examination with a probe should be 
conducted with great gentleness, and if found painful should be 
at once discontinued, since the information obtained in this man¬ 
ner has only a slight value. In some cases the fistula leads so 






FISTULA 


297 


directly to tlie rectum that a probe can be passed, and its point 
felt by tlie inserted finger. 

If a fistula is submucous or subcutaneous only, its external 
opening is near the anus. If the external opening is farther away, 
the fistula probably leads to the rectum, either through the sphinc¬ 
ters or above them. 

Treatment. —A patient may obtain relief from the pain of a 
fistula by the repeated use of a hot sitz bath. 

There are three methods of treating fistula which are likely 
to effect a cure within a short time, and are therefore worth con¬ 
sideration. They are incision, excision, and excision with suture. 
The first is the method usually employed. 

The preparation of the patient for operation is important. 
In this as in all other rectal diseases in which a few days’ delay 
in operation is not prejudicial, the bowels should be emptied with 
great thoroughness. This requires at least three days, as no cathar¬ 
tics should be given within twenty-four hours of the time set for 
operation, and no enema should be given within twelve hours of 
that time. If the preliminary treatment is thoroughly carried 
out, and a small dose of morphine is given four or six hours before 
operation, the patient will come to the operating-table with a dry 
and empty rectum, and there will be no evacuation during the 
operation to infect the operative wound. On the other hand, if 
cathartics are given the day before operation, and an enema an 
hour or so before operation, the wound is almost certain to he 
soiled with fluid feces, and the chance of primary union is greatly 
decreased. 

If the fistula is blind externally, the overlying tissue is split 
up by an incision more or less parallel to the sphincter ani, and 
the fistulous tract is curetted or cauterized. If scar tissue is 
abundant, or if tuberculosis is suspected, the tissue bordering on 
the fistula should be dissected away. The wound may then be 
sutured in whole or in part. 

If the fistula is a blind internal one, similar principles should 
govern the operator. The sphincter must be fully dilated, the 
lining of the rectum carefully examined by means of a specu¬ 
lum, and any openings explored in various directions, with a 
bent probe. All fistulse should be laid wide open. If a blind 
internal fistula, extends nearly to the skin, an external opening 


298 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


should be made, and the case treated like one of complete 
fistula. 

The usual fistula in ano is a complete fistula, having an open¬ 
ing into the bowel and one through the skin. The fistula itself 
may lie beneath the mucous membrane and the skin, or it may 
pass through the sphincter muscle, or between the external and 
internal sphincter, or above them both. When the sphincter has 
been fully dilated, a probe, or better still, a grooved director, is 
passed through the fistula into the bowel, and all the tissues lying 
upon it are then,, divided. The division of the sphincter should be 
strictly a radial one. Many fistula pursue an oblique course; 
hence, besides the direct cut through the sphincter it may be neces¬ 
sary to make an oblique incision in the skin, or one parallel to the 
fibers of the sphincter. It is possible in many cases to excise the 
the fistulous tract, suture the wound, and obtain primary union. 
The possibility of hidden suppuration should be borne in mind, 
and if the temperature rises, or tenderness or swelling increase 
after operation, the wound should be promptly reopened and 
drained. 

Complex fistuke that are of the same nature as the fistuloe 
already described should be similarly treated. Each branch should 
be thoroughly laid open or injected with a solution of nitrate 
of silver, 96 grains to the ounce. Fistuke connecting with other 
hollow organs in the vicinity present such technicalities in their 
treatment that they will not he considered here. Fistulse due to 
diseased bone will heal as soon as the focus of disease has been 
obliterated. I istulse between the anus and coccyx may be of con¬ 
genital origin (see p. 181). 

If the fistula is tuberculous or syphilitic, suitable constitutional 
treatment of the patient should be instituted. Tuberculous fistuke 
can be healed even though there are other foci in the body, but 
their rate of healing is slow, and subsequent operations may be 
necessary. 

Gauze drainage is satisfactory after incision or excision of a 
fistula. The bowels should be moved by the third day, and daily 
thereafter by mild laxatives. After each movement the wound 
should be irrigated with hot saline solution. 

Gonorrhea. —Gonorrhea is occasionally found in the rec¬ 
tum, either as a result of an extension of the process from the 


CHANCROID 


299 


vagina or by direct infection from a penis introduced into the rec¬ 
tum. The symptoms are those of a severe proctitis, namely, burn¬ 
ing, a feeling of weight, pain in the rectum and hack, greatly 
increased by defecation, and more or less tenesmus. There is a 
mucous or purulent or bloody discharge. If the person has been 
subject to unnatural coitus, the anus will probably he relaxed, 
and the swollen mucous membrane may pout from the orifice. 
Often there are erosions or fissures due to the irritating discharge. 
Frequently the patient will deny the possibility of direct infec¬ 
tion. The demonstration of the gonococci in a smear made from 
the discharge is the best proof of the gonorrheal character of the 
inflammation. 

Treatment. —Pain can he somewhat relieved by a hot sitz 
hath or by hot applications applied moist and covered with oiled 
silk, and kept hot by a hot bottle or brick (p. 127). But if pain 
is severe morphine must he given in a suppository or hypoder¬ 
mically. The rectum should he irrigated twice daily with hot 
saline, followed by a 2 per cent boric acid solution, or one of 
silver nitrate, 1: 3,000, or protargol, 1 per cent, or permanganate 
of potash, 1: 4,000, or even weaker. While the symptoms are 
acute the patient should remain in bed. If the sphincter is tight, 
it should be stretched. This will often relieve the patient of a good 
deal of the pain both during defecation and at other times. Care 
must be exercised not to make deep tears in the infiltrated mucous 
membrane. 

Chancroid. —Chancroids about the anus or in the anal canal 
may he reimplantations from chancroids of the genitals, or they 
may he due to direct infection from another person. They are 
far commoner in women than in men. The sores are usually mul¬ 
tiple. In character they are similar to chancroids of the genitals. 

In some cases there are few symptoms, and the disease runs a 
favorable course. In others the ulcers are phagedenic in char¬ 
acter, or so situated that defecation is very painful. The inguinal 
glands are not infrequently swollen and may suppurate. 

Treatment. —Most chancroids run a more or less definite 
course to recovery, but much can he done to prevent further infec¬ 
tion of the surrounding skin. The parts should he bathed twice or 
three times a day with mild antiseptics, in order to remove and 
neutralize the discharge. The individual ulcers may he touched 


300 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


with stronger liquids, such as peroxid of hydrogen or carbolic 
acid solution, 5 per cent, or with pure ichthyol. Some writers 
recommend cauterization with the Paquelin cautery or with 
strong acids. If the spasm of the sphincter causes pain, it should 
he stretched, hut with great gentleness, as extensive inflammation 
and death has followed this procedure in cases of chancroids. In 
all cases the folds of the nates should be kept from contact by a 
double layer of gauze or a thin piece of cotton wrung out of an 
antiseptic solution. 

Syphilis. - -Chancre, the primary lesion of syphilis, is not 
often seen in the anal region. When it does occur, it causes little 



Fig. 140.—Syphilitic Condylomata about Anus of Three Weeks’ Duration. 

Patient a male aged sixteen. 

pain and heals promptly, so that Tuttle suggests that the rarity 
of its observation may be the explanation of the numerous cases 
of syphilis seen for the first time in the secondary stage and with¬ 
out any history of a primary sore. Mucous patches may develop 
about the anus and undergo hypertrophy, so that their surface 
presents something of the appearance of cauliflower. They have 






ULCER OF THE RECTUM 


301 


received the name of condylomata lata (Fig. 140). The lesions 
are apt to he transplanted from one fold of skin to another. 

Treatment. —The treatment is that of syphilis in general 
(see p. 61). Local treatment consists in cleanliness and protec¬ 
tion of the sore and surrounding skin by dusting the former with 
calomel or oxid of zinc, or a mixture of the two, and keeping a 
fold of gauze between the nates. 

Ulcerating lesions should he cleansed with an antiseptic solu¬ 
tion and dried and dusted with any simple powder, or kept covered 
with moist gauze. The use of blue ointment upon every syphilitic 
sore is a disgusting practise which happily is going out of fashion. 
Tests show that ulcers do not heal as rapidly under it as when 
dressed with red wash or some other solution, provided the gen¬ 
eral treatment of the patient is the same. 

Late Syphilitic Lesions.—Tertiary lesions, both gumma and 

diffuse syphilitic endarteritis occur in the rectum, I hey pro¬ 
duce tedious ulcers, as is mentioned below, and are also of im¬ 
portance because they may he followed by stricture (<p v. p. 304). 

Tuberculosis. —The anal region may he the seat of tubercu¬ 
losis in the form of ulceration, either primary or resulting from 
a tuberculous fistula. In the former case the ulceration is shallow, 
hut may spread over a wide area. In the latter case it may bur¬ 
row deeply into the perirectal spaces. The rectum may also be 
the seat of tuberculous ulceration, usually secondary to tuberculosis 

of the lungs. 

Treatment. —In these conditions the general treatment is all- 
important. Unless the resisting power of the individual can be 
raised, local treatment, such as curettage or cauterization, or even 
excision of the diseased tissues, is almost certain to he followed 
by a recurrence, or rather extension, of the process. Hence it is 
better to confine the local treatment to mild measures, such as 
daily cleansing with peroxid of hydrogen solution, one part of 
peroxid to eight of water, and the application of gauze saturated 
with balsam of Peru, or a solution of methyl blue, ten grains 
to the ounce. For the treatment of tuberculous fistula see 

page 298. 

" Ulcer of the Rectum.— Ulcer of the rectum may he due to 
traumatism, such as abrasion of the mucous membi ane by hard 
fecal masses in a person whose vitality is at a low point; or it may 



302 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


be due to the intensity of an inflammatory process, either simple 
or venereal; or it may be due to tuberculosis, or to syphilis, or to 
a malignant growth. 

Diagnosis. —The symptoms of ulcer of the rectum are pain, 
diarrhea, the discharge of mucus, pus, or blood, excoriation of the 
skin around the anus, tenesmus, spasm of the sphincter muscle, or 
possibly relaxation of the same if the ulcer is of long standing. 
These are general symptoms, some of which will be present in 
everv case of ulcer, no matter what its cause. 

The pain varies greatly. It is a prominent symptom in those 
cases in which the ulcer is situated low down, so that it is grasped 
by the sphincter. 

Diarrhea is a prominent symptom in most cases. During the 
night, when the patient is in a recumbent position, there may be 
no stools. On rising he may have two or three in quick succession. 
The diarrhea is often accompanied with tenesmus. The doctor 
should never be satisfied to accept as satisfactory the patient’s diag¬ 
nosis of chronic diarrhea without assignable cause. In many of 
these cases an ulcer of the rectum exists, of which the diarrhea is 
the chief or only symptom. 

The diagnosis can be made from the symptoms, but should 
never be considered complete until the mucous membrane of the 
rectum has been inspected through the proctoscope. For this pur¬ 
pose three or four tubes, of varying sizes and lengths, each fitted 
with an obturator, are necessary. The patient, with the clothes 
about the abdomen fully loosened, is placed in the knee-chest posi¬ 
tion, and as large a tube as the anus will admit is passed in as 
far as it will go readily. This is usually a distance of four to six 
inches. The obturator is then withdrawn, and light reflected from 
a head mirror is thrown into the rectum. As the tube is slowly 
withdrawn the mucous membrane of the rectum appears, inch bv 
inch, at its inner orifice. In this manner most of the mucous mem¬ 
brane of the rectum can be inspected, provided a tube having a 
caliber of at least an inch can be used. It is important that the 
rectum shall be empty. In many cases, when the obturator is with¬ 
drawn, air will pass into the rectum and separate its walls to a 
certain extent. This facilitates examination, and under such cir¬ 
cumstances a tube not more than three inches long may suffice for 
the inspection of the rectum for twice that distance. 



ULCER OF THE RECTUM 


303 


If the anus will admit only a small tube, or if the insertion of 
any tube causes much pain, it is better to give an anesthetic, mod¬ 
erately dilate the sphincter, and insert a full sized tube. Special 
proctoscopes are made with glass obturators so as to permit the 
forcible distention of the rectum by air pumped into it. 

Treatment. —If spasm of the sphincter exists, or if there is 
great pain on defecation, the sphincter should be moderately di¬ 
lated. The patient should take as much rest in bed as he can 
afford. The feces should be kept, if possible, in a semisolid con¬ 
dition, as they then cause the least amount of irritation. The 
rectum should be irrigated at least once a day with a warm normal 
saline solution. The surface of the ulcer should he painted or 
sprayed with stimulating solutions, such as nitrate of silver, 1 
per cent, zinc sulphate, 2 per cent, protargol, 5 per cent, argonin, 
10 per cent, etc. If a stronger caustic is indicated, a solution of 
chlorid of zinc, 10 or 20 per cent, may be used. A bit of cotton 
is saturated with it and held in contact with the ulcer for some 
minutes. Another plan of treatment is to apply the remedy chosen 
in the form of a suppository or in the form of an ointment in¬ 
jected through a special ointment syringe. 

In all cases of ulceration in which the deeper tissues of the 
rectum have been involved the possibility of resulting stricture 
should be borne in mind. During the later healing of the ulcer, 
and for some weeks after it has entirely healed, well lubricated 
flexible bougies should be passed at least once a week in order to 
prevent the formation of a stricture. This treatment should always 
be carried out with gentleness; otherwise the induration and scar 
formation will be increased by it (p. 306). 

As the vitality of most patients who suffer from ulcer of the 
rectum is below normal, suitable tonic treatment should always be 
carried out. This is especially true in case of tuberculous ulcera¬ 
tion, and will do far more toward effecting a cure of the ulcer than 
any number of scrapings or excisions of diseased tissue. 

In syphilitic ulceration antisypliilitic treatment is the curative 
treatment, but it should be combined with the local treatment above 
indicated. The frecpiency of stricture in these patients seems to 
be due in great measure to the neglect of treatment during the 
active stage of the ulceration. 

The idceration of malignant disease is an unimportant compli- 




304 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


cation, which of itself does not require other than cleansing treat¬ 
ment. 

Stricture of the Rectum. —Stricture of the rectum may be 
congenital or inflammatory or due to a new growth. The first kind 
is described on page 323, and the last on page 317. 

Inflammatory, or non-malignant, stricture is due to the con¬ 
traction of scar tissue following long standing ulceration. Fre¬ 
quently stricture and ulcer coexist. 

Diagnosis.— The symptoms of stricture are due in part to the 
obstruction which exists, and in part to the accompanying ulcera¬ 
tion. The symptoms of ulcer, as stated above, are pain, diarrhea, 
the discharge of mucus, pus, or blood, excoriation of the skin 
around the anus, tenesmus, and spasm, or possibly relaxation of 
the sphincter muscle. The symptom of the stricture, exclusive of 
ulceration, is constipation, with its attendant disturbances of diges¬ 
tion. Some patients go for several days without any movement of 
the bowels. In other cases constipation alternates with diarrhea. 
In some cases the stool is ribbonlike in character, but this may be 
produced by a contracted sphincter in cases in which no stricture 
exists. The symptom has, therefore, little importance except that 
it indicates the necessity of a thorough examination. 

The tendency of most strictures is to grow smaller, and for 
that reason the symptoms of obstruction are likely to increase. At 
any time the obstruction may become absolute, just as it does in 
cases of malignant stricture. When this takes place neither gas 
nor fecal matter passes the rectum. The abdomen becomes dis¬ 
tended, and in the course of four or five days vomiting will prob¬ 
ably set in. As these patients are accustomed to infrequent move¬ 
ments of the bowels, complete obstruction will sometimes exist a 
surprisingly long time before alarming symptoms develop. 

Usually, before obstruction becomes complete, the patient will 
pass through a number of periods of partial obstruction, attended 
with griping pains, due to increased peristalsis and swelling of the 
abdomen. Such an attack is often relieved either with or without 
the use of cathartics and enemas, so that in three or four days the 
patient’s condition is the usual one. 

The stricture may be at the anus, for instance, when it follows 
a badly performed operation for hemorrhoids, or it may be within 
easy reach of the finger, or it may be at the upper portion of the 




STRICTURE OF THE RECTUM 305 

rectum, and so be beyond the reach of the finger in most cases. It 
is worth remembering that the rectum can be palpated digitally 
for a greater distance when the patient is in a squatting position 
than in any other position. If the finger is able to reach the stric¬ 
ture the surgeon should determine its distance from the anus, its 
caliber, its distensibility, the amount of surrounding induration, 
and the presence of an ulcer. If the finger can be passed through 
it, he should also determine the extent of the stricture, both circum¬ 
ferentially and longitudinally. 

•Further knowledge of the stricture may be obtained by the use 
of the proctoscope, and also by the passage through it of olive 
tipped or flexible bougies. 

In the female, vaginal and rectal examination combined will 
often give added information in regard to the extent and form of 
the stricture. 

Treatment. The non-operative treatment of stricture of the 
rectum consists in the regulation of the diet, which should contain 
a considerable portion of nitrogenous articles and a good deal of 
fat; in the use of sufficient laxatives to prevent the accumulation 
of hard feces above the stricture, and in the daily use of injections 
to keep the lower bowel empty. If difficulty is experienced in 
causing the injected fluid to pass the stricture, the enema may be 
given in the knee-chest position. If the stricture is due to syphilis, 
mercury and potassium iodid should be given; but little benefit 
is experienced from their use if the stricture is an old one. 

If the above mentioned treatment does not relieve the patient 
of pain and tenesmus, hot applications to the anal region should 
be employed. The use of anodynes is to be avoided as far as pos¬ 
sible on account of the tendency of these patients to become drug 
habitues. 

Operative Treatment .—Several operations for the treatment of 
rectal stricture have stood the test of time. They are gradual or 
rapid dilatation, internal proctotomy, external or complete proc¬ 
totomy, resection, and, when all other measures fail to overcome 
the obstruction, colostomy. Only the methods of internal treat¬ 
ment will be here described, since the other procedures are outside 
the domain of minor surgery. 

If the stricture is within the area of the sphincter, it should 
be forcibly dilated by the fingers under a general anesthetic. This 



306 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 

/ 

will save the patient much time and pain. When a sufficient cali¬ 
ber has been obtained in this manner it may be maintained by the 
passage of hard rubber plugs every night by the patient himself. 
If the stricture is above the level of the sphincters, its rapid dila¬ 
tation, or divulsion, as it is called, produces one or more lacera¬ 
tions of the bowel. These may become infected, and they will 
almost certainly add to the amount of scar tissue, the contraction 
of which will have to be overcome in the future. Tor these rea¬ 
sons gradual dilatation is jireferable. This may be accomplished 
by the finger or by flexible bougies, if the stricture is beyond the 
reach of the finger. This treatment, to be successful, must be very 
gentle; violence is sure to excite the formation of additional cica¬ 
tricial tissue. The bougie, well lubricated, may be passed under 
the guidance of the finger or, in difficult cases, through a speculum. 
This last method, recommended by Tuttle, avoids the risk of mak¬ 
ing a false passage with the tip of the bougie. The first bougie 
passed should be of such caliber that it enters the stricture easilv; 
the second one should be a little larger, and should remain in 
position until the stricture somewhat relaxes its hold upon it. In 
some cases a third may be passed. At the next treatment, two or 
three da\s later, the first bougie should be slightly smaller than 
the largest one employed at the previous treatment. An attempt 
should not be made to increase the size of the bougies at every 
tieatment, lest too much reaction be excited. During the treat¬ 
ment the joatient should be in a lateral position, with the knees 
well drawn up, and should not attempt to get up for at least fifteen 
or twenty minutes after the treatment is concluded. 

If the stricture is not too narrow, and not too far above the 
anus, it may be satisfactorily dilated with a bivalve rectal specu¬ 
lum, while the patient is in the knee cliest position. By this 
method tlieie is little danger of injury to the mucous membrane, 
and the stretching is controlled by direct inspection as well as by 
sense of touch. 

Internal proctotomy may be of service to relieve the patient of 
obstruction caused by an annular stricture, or an overdevelopment 
of one of Houston’s folds, in obstinate constipation. The division 
should be followed by semi-weekly dilatation. 




CHAPTER XII 

TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND 

RECTUM 

BENIGN TUMORS 

Venereal Warts. —Venereal warts, or pointed condylomata, 
are small papillomatous tumors which form about the anus, as well 
as in the vicinity of the urethral orifice. They are not strictly of 
venereal origin, but develop when the skin is kept moist by any 



Fig. 141. —Venereal Warts about the Anus of a Man Aged Twenty-three 

Years. Duration, six months. 

sort of an irritating discharge. They are covered by epithelium, 
which is sometimes so delicate that they bleed at the slightest 
touch (Eig. 141). They can be distinguished from the broad or 

syphilitic condylomata by the fact that they always grow from 
22 * 307 






308 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


slender pedicles, and they can be distinguished from malignant 
epithelial growths by the fact that there is absolutely no indura¬ 
tion of the underlying true skin. 

Treatment. —The warts should be clipped off even with the 
skin by scissors, and the free hemorrhage controlled by hot w r ater 
and pressure. If the warts are extensive, a general anesthetic is 
desirable. Recurrence is unlikely if the parts are kept clean 
and dry. 

If the patient is unwilling to undergo this treatment, a slower 
cure can be effected by the use of caustics, of which monochloracetic 
acid is one of the best. 

Polypus. —This small tumor of the anus or rectum has usu¬ 
ally a slender pedicle containing a small artery and a soft body 
made up of flabby adipose and fibrous or myxomatous tissue, and 
covered with either normal mucous membrane or with mucous 
membrane which has undergone adenomatous changes. Such a 
tumor may he recognized by the palpating finger or it may pro¬ 
trude from the anus. It often gives rise to hemorrhage, but other¬ 
wise its presence is not apt to he noticed by the patient, unless it 
projects externally or becomes caught in the sphincter, causing the 
patient to feel that all of the fecal matter has not been evacuated. 
It may also become inflamed and acutely painful. If the polypus 
is situated above the reach of the finger, an exact diagnosis requires 
the use of the speculum (p. 281). 

Treatment.— If the polypus is small and easily accessible it 
can be ligated and removed through the speculum, or the defect 
in the mucous membrane may he closed by one or two black silk 
sutures. If it is of larger size or has a broad pedicle, it is better 
to etherize the patient, dilate the sphincter, cleanse the rectum, 
remove the polyp, ligate its vessels, and accurately close the wound 
by fine black silk interrupted sutures. The aftertreatment is the 
same as that which should follow the removal of a chronic hemor¬ 
rhoid (p. 316). 

Hemorrhoids. —A hemorrhoid is a more or less pedicled 
swelling, either within or outside of the anus, which is covered 
with mucous membrane or skin, and in the center of which are 
one or more dilated veins. If the hemorrhoid is of long standing 

it usually contains in addition considerable cicatricial tissue of 
inflammatory origin. 


HEMORRHOIDS 


309 


Hemorrhoids are spoken of as external or internal, according 
to their situation. Those which are placed so far outward as to 
rest normally outside the sphincter ani are called external' hemor¬ 
rhoids ; others are spoken of as internal, although many of them 
do not lie wholly within the sphincter. 

According to their age and manner of development, hemor¬ 
rhoids may also be classed as acute and chronic. 

Acute External Hemorrhoid.—A hemorrhoid may appear sud¬ 
denly. While the patient is at stool or lifting a heavy weight, a 



Fig. 142.— Acute External Hemorrhoid, One Week. Note the dark point which 
indicates a threatened rupture and discharge of the blood clot, "three years 
previously a similar acute hemorrhoid relieved itself in this way. Patient a man 
aged forty-four years. 

vein about the anus may rupture subcutaneously, causing the blood 
to clot in its lumen or, more often, outside of it. There will then 
be felt upon examination a small rounded tumor, containing in its 
center a solid elastic clot of blood (Tig. 142). If the mucous 
membrane or skin which covers it is edematous the blood clot can¬ 
not be felt so perfectly. 









310 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


Such a hemorrhoid is sometimes situated wholly outside of the 
sphincter ani, although it is usually grasped, in part at least, by 
this muscle. It should not be confused with a true “ strangulated 
hemorrhoid/’ which is a chronic internal hemorrhoid, prolapsed 
and pinched by the sphincter. 

The symptoms of an acute hemorrhoid are those of discom¬ 
fort, burning, and, if the affected vein lies within the grasp of 
the sphincter ani, there will also exist sharp pain, which grows 
more acute in the lapse of a few hours and which is greatly in¬ 
creased upon defecation, and may even render that act impossible. 

If a hemorrhoid of this character is not treated, one of two 
things will follow. If the pressure upon the overlying mucous 
membrane or skin is great enough to cause necrosis, the blood clot 
may be discharged, the patient will be relieved of the symptoms, 
and the tumor will shrivel up in part and become one of the exter¬ 
nal tabs of skin so often seen about the anus and which are some¬ 
times called cutaneous hemorrhoids. If necrosis of the overlying 
skin or mucous membrane does not take place the blood clot will 
in time become organized, and the tumor will decrease in size, 
though remaining harder and larger than is the case when the 
blood clot is discharged. 

Treatment. The best treatment for an acute hemorrhoid is 
radial incision, or excision of the most prominent part of the over- 
lying skin, removal of the clotted blood, insertion of a hit of ffauze 
or possibly suture of the wound. If the hemorrhoid is situated 
wholly outside of the sphincter, this operation may he performed 
in a few seconds, either with or without a local anesthetic. If the 
lesion has caused great pain, it almost certainly extends upward 
within the grasp of the sphincter. In this case no operation should 
he done until after the sphincter ani has been dilated, and for 
this a general anesthetic is desirable (see p. 282). 

If the external acute hemorrhoid is not seen until the symp¬ 
toms aie subsiding, and the danger of necrosis of the skin is past, 
it may be well to postpone operation and allow the thrombus to 
organize and shrivel up. At any rate operation at this stage will 
not be followed by the prompt collapse of the skin and quick 

restoration to normal which follows operation when the clot is 
freshly formed. 

External tabs of skin, the so called cutaneous hemorrhoids, the 


HEMORRHOIDS 


311 


result of previous acute hemorrhoids, usually give rise to no symp¬ 
toms. If their presence is disfiguring they should be removed and 
the resulting wounds sutured radially to the anus with fine black 
silk. 

Chronic Hemorrhoid.—Another form of hemorrhoid which may 
he spoken of as chronic to distinguish it from the acute form above 
described is due to constipation. The dry hard fecal matter clings 
to the mucous membrane above the sphincter, and a strong abdom¬ 
inal pressure exerted by the patient to expel the feces dilates the 
veins of the rectum and those about the anus. In the normal 
individual in perfect health defecation can take place without 
straining, since the peristaltic action of the intestine is continued 
down to the anus, and is sufficient to expel the fecal mass. When 
the feces is allowed to remain for hours each day in the rectum, 
the latter becomes tolerant of its presence, so that it is difficult 
to excite it to peristaltic action during the act of defecation. 

In time the dilatation of the veins become permanent, and 
although the change may not he noticeable when the parts are at 
rest, it is evident when the patient strains. This gives a puffy 
appearance to the skin around the anus. These dilated masses 
of veins, with their covering of skin, are called chronic external 
hemorrhoids. 

From this repeated straining at stool, and from the long reten¬ 
tion of feces in the rectum, the caliber of the lower portion of 
the rectum becomes excessive, and when it is empty the superfluous 
mucous membrane is naturally thrown into folds. Such a fold 
covering a mass of dilated veins is known as an internal hemor¬ 
rhoid. At each defecation it is dragged downward, and in time 
comes to assume the shape of a pedicled tumor. One or more of 
these internal hemorrhoids may protrude from the anus after 
defecation until replaced by the fingers (Fig. 143). 

If the hemorrhoids are large and the sphincter ani by reason 
of the irritation of the parts has tightened its grasp, the reduction 
of the hemorrhoids may he attended with difficulty. In this man¬ 
ner a true strangulation of a hemorrhoid may take place, and 
result in gangrene of a portion of its mucous membrane. 

In the usual case of chronic hemorrhoids, there may he one or 
two of the folds above described or a complete circle of them, or 
the whole lower segment of the rectum may become so loosened 


312 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 

and dilated that it turns outward during the act of defecation, 
thus simulating the normal behavior of the rectum of the horse 
during defecation. 

Symptoms. —The symptoms arising from chronic hemorrhoids 
vary greatly according to the situation of the dilated veins and 



Fig. 143. —Internal Hemorrhoids of Sixteen Years’ Duration. Patient aged 

fifty-two years. 

whether or not inflammation is present. Chronic external hemor¬ 
rhoids existing alone often give rise to no symptoms whatever, or 
possibly to a slight burning sensation after defecation, possibly to 
pruritus. Internal hemorrhoids, on the other hand, are far more 
painful, and when well developed they bleed easily and interfere 
with defecation. These patients are almost invariably constipated, 
and while constipation is one of the chief factors in the causation 
of hemorrhoids, it often happens that laxatives by temporarily 
increasing the size of the tumors, and the freedom with which 
they protrude, add to the discomfort of the patient. The pain 
may be constant or it may be caused by defecation, and last for 
halt an hour or so after the rectum has been emptied. The hem¬ 
orrhage is of variable quantity. It is usually due to abrasions 
of the mucous membrane, caused by the passage of hard fecal mat¬ 
ter through the sphincter, or to abrasions caused by the patient, 
if the mucous membrane protrudes from the anus and he uses a 




HEMORRHOIDS 


313 


rough, dry paper to cleanse himself or to relieve the itching. Hem¬ 
orrhage may also be due to congestion or ulceration within the 
rectum; and if so, it usually occurs in greater quantity than 
when it is due to the mechanical abrasions spoken of. The itch¬ 
ing may be intolerable. This may be the chief or only symptom 
of hemorrhoids, and hence the term itching piles. It is appar¬ 
ently due to the disordered circulation about the anus, and if so, 
disappears with the relief of the hemorrhoids. But pruritus ani 
may exist without hemorrhoids (see p. 287), and may therefore 
coexist independently. 

Treatment. —The non-operative treatment of hemorrhoids is 
of importance because it may relieve all symptoms in the milder 
cases, and because many patients absolutely refuse operation, even 
when it is clearly indicated. If the regulation of the diet and 
mode of life is not sufficient to overcome constipation, mild laxa¬ 
tives should be given. Straining at stool is to be avoided, even 
though a small injection of cold water has to be used each time. 
The patient should make it a practise after the rectum is empty to 
contract the sphincter four or five times with considerable force. 
Bathing with cold water will also improve the tone of the tissues, 
and, when possible, these measures should be followed by a few 
minutes’ rest in a recumbent position or with the hips elevated. 

Local treatment will naturally be directed to the relief of the 
most annoying symptoms: thus, if the patient is annoyed with 
itching, the parts should be painted with a five per cent solution 
of carbolic acid or a salve containing tannic acid and ichthyol, 
each one part, belladonna ointment and the cerate of lead subace¬ 
tate, each five parts. Bor the bleeding and pain of internal hem¬ 
orrhoids, a multitude of salves and suppositories has been recom¬ 
mended. Perhaps as good as any is a suppository containing 
two grains of iodoform and five of tannic acid, with the addition 
of a small quantity of morphine, if the pain is great. 

Hemorrhage is for the most part not serious, unless on account 
of its frequent recurrence. Any particular bleeding either ceases 
spontaneously or will usually do so as soon as the patient assumes 
a horizontal position or applies cold and pressure to the anus. 

A prolapsed hemorrhoid can usually be replaced by a few 
moments’ steady pressure. This is more effectual if the mucous 
membrane of the opposite side of the bowel is drawn outward 



314 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 

before the pressure is made. Its return will then assist in drag¬ 
ging the prolapsed hemorrhoid hack into place. The patient usu¬ 
ally learns to make this manipulation himself. If he fails on ac¬ 
count of pain or swelling, the prolapsed hemorrhoid will rapidly 
increase in size, so that in an hour or two its reduction w 7 ill he 
more difficult. If left out for a longer period it may become gan¬ 
grenous in part. 

The application of cold by an ice-bag or cracked ice will re¬ 
duce the swelling and favor reduction. Constant elastic pressure 
obtained by a big pad of nonabsorbent cotton and a firm T-band- 
age may in an hour or two reduce the prolapsed hemorrhoid. The 
cotton should be separated from the hemorrhoid by a layer of 
gauze spread with any simple ointment. 

If these measures fail, or if immediate reduction is desirable 
on account of intense pain, the patient should be given a general 
anesthetic and the sphincter ani dilated. Return of the prolapsed 
hemorrhoids .is then accomplished with the greatest ease. A rub¬ 
ber tube left in the rectum will allow the escape of gas. 

While the palliative treatment above indicated will relieve the 
symptoms in mild cases of hemorrhoids, they are ill adapted to 
severe cases. In these the gross lesions are so marked that one 
does his patient an injustice who does not advise him to submit 
himself to operation. 

Operative Treatment. —The curative treatment of chronic 
hemorrhoids consists in the dilatation of the sphincter ani and the 
removal of the superfluous skin or mucous membrane and the 
underlying dilated veins. This may mean the removal of a single 
fold or several folds, or the removal of a complete circle of the 
bowel in cases in which there is so much prolapse. The wounds 
caused in the mucous membrane and skin should be carefullv 

V/ 

stitched with fine black silk after the veins and arteries have 
been ligated and excised. In other words, the same surgical prin¬ 
ciples should be applied here as are followed in the removal of 
superfluous tissue in other portions of the body. No one would 
think of clamping an angioma of the cheek, ligating or cauteri¬ 
zing its stump, and leaving the wound to heal by granulation. The 
rectum should be treated with no less respect. The rapidity with 
which the parts will heal, the absence of pain, and the lack of 
any visible scar will be a surprise to those who have only seen 


HEMORRHOIDS 


315 


hemorrhoids treated by the older methods. As far as possible the 
suture lines should be made longitudinal to avoid subsequent con¬ 
traction of the anus. 

Technic of Operation. —Whenever possible, three days should 
be allowed to prepare the patient for operation, as this preparation 
is most important. The bowels should be thoroughly moved three 
days before operation and two days before operation. On the day 
immediately preceding operation one or two rectal enemas should 
be given. After this the rectum should not be disturbed. It will 
then be found clean and free from fluid at operation. Tor the 
last day the diet should be fluid and of a character to leave little 
residue, and a small dose of morphine may be given a few hours 
before operation. 

The patient is anesthetized and placed in the lithotomy posi¬ 
tion. The sphincter is slowly but completely dilated (p. 282 ). 
A bivalve speculum is inserted and opened in different directions, 
so that the operator may determine the amount of hemorrhoidal 
tissue which it is desirable to resect. The speculum is removed 
and an individual hemorrhoid is clamped longitudinally. The 
mucous membrane and the skin, if the hemorrhoid extends so far 
downward, is divided on either side of the clamp, and dissected 
and pushed back from the central mass of vessels. The pedicle 
of the hemorrhoid, which is composed chiefly of vessels, is trans¬ 
fixed and ligated in two sections with fine catgut. The upper 
portion of the w r ound in the mucous membrane is then closed by a 
continuous suture of fine chromic catgut. Before this is drawn 
taut the portion of hemorrhoid included in the clamp is cut away. 
Care should be taken to cut far enough away from the ligatures 
on the pedicle so that they will not slip off. The chromic catgut 
suture is then continued until the wound is closed; or if preferred 
the upper half of the wound only is closed in this way, and the 
lower half is stitched with fine black silk. This causes less irri¬ 
tation, and almost never suppurates; but it is difficult to remove, 
without anesthesia, stitches more than an inch above the normal 
lower level of the anus. 

Other hemorrhoids are treated in this manner until the normal 
contour of the bowel has been restored. One should be careful 
not to remove too much of the mucous membrane and skin, espe¬ 
cially in the anal canal, lest a stricture result. It is rarely de- 


316 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


sirable to remove more than four clampfuls of tissue. The clamp 
should never contain more than one-eighth of the total circumfer¬ 
ence of the bowel. 

Internal hemorrhoids are often continuous with external ones, 
and if such is the case, the radial excisions of mucous membrane 
should be continued outward far enough to remove the surplus 
skin, and permit the ligation and excision of the dilated under¬ 
lying veins. The remaining skin will “ tit 17 more smoothly if the 

* 

line of suture, strictly longitudinal within the rectum, becomes a 
spiral one when it passes outside of the anus. 

Postoperative Treatment .—After the operation the patient 
should be kept on a fluid diet for two days. The white of an egg, 
stirred raw into a half-glass of water, probably leaves as little 
residue in the intestine as any form of nourishment. A little 
fruit juice may be added for taste. This may be given every two 
or three hours. The bowels should be moved by a laxative on the 
third or fourth day, and after that the patient may get up, though 
if he can afford a longer rest, so much the better. 

All things considered, this plan of treatment seems the best 
that has been devised. It is the cleanest, gives the smallest wound 
for the work done, and is followed in most cases by primary union. 
The various forms of office treatment by means of electrolysis, 
injections of carbolic acid, etc., prolong the patient’s discomfort 
for several weeks, even if they do not add to it, and often fail to 
effect a cure. 

MALIGNANT TUMORS 

Carcinoma. —Cancer of the anus and rectum is a common 
disease, especially in men over thirty years of age. It may origi¬ 
nate in the skin around or within the anus, in which case it is a 
squamous epithelioma; or it may originate in the mucous mem¬ 
brane of the rectum, in which case it may be of any one of the 
types of cancer which are found growing from mucous membrane. 
In more than one-half the cases the tumor involves the supraperi¬ 
toneal portion of the rectum; while in about one-fourth of the cases 
it involves the infraperitoneal portion of the rectum or the anus. 
In these latter situations it is easily accessible to the finger, and 
there is, therefore, the less excuse for failure to make an early 
diagnosis. Aet so strong is the dislike of many physicians for a 


SARCOMA 


317 


rectal examination tliat patients are frequently seen with well de¬ 
veloped carcinoma of the rectum who have been treated for con¬ 
stipation, hemorrhoids, etc., for months without a physical exami¬ 
nation being made. This is a sufficient excuse, if any is needed, 
for introducing this serious subject into a book on minor surgery. 

Diagnosis. —The diagnosis in anal carcinoma is easily made, 
since at least a part of the growth is visible. There will be in¬ 
duration of the skin and a hard tumor, slightly elevated, and pre¬ 
senting in its older portions cracks or ulcers partially covered by 
scabs. Microscopic examination of a section of the tumor will 
remove any doubt which may exist as to its nature. 

The early symptoms of carcinoma situated above the anal canal 
are irregularity in the stools, constipation or diarrhea, and a dis¬ 
charge of mucus or pus or blood, the discharge usually having an 
extremely foul odor. The discharge frequently causes erosions of 
the skin about the anus. The amount of pain varies in different 
cases. The fact that it is often a late symptom is no doubt one 
reason why these tumors sometimes attain so great a size before 
surgical aid is called for. 

If the carcinoma is within reach of the finger, it can be rec¬ 
ognized as a hard, nodular growth, more or less elevated above 
the level of the mucous membrane of the rectum. It is inelastic, 
so that if it extends through more than one-half of the circumfer¬ 
ence of the rectum, the caliber of the latter is distinctly reduced. 
If it extends all the way around the rectum, there is usually a 
well marked stricture. 

The fact that no tumor can be reached with the finger is no 
proof that the rectum is free from cancer, since it may be situ¬ 
ated too high up to be accessible in this manner. In every such 
case, therefore, an examination with the speculum should be made. 

Sarcoma. —Sarcoma of the rectum starts outside of the mu¬ 
cous membrane, so that at first the mucous membrane is movable 
over it. Dor the same reason ulceration is not an early symptom, 
nor is gangrene of the surface, with its characteristic odor, so 
prominent a symptom. Sarcoma may obstruct the rectum by its 
bulk, but does not tend to form a cicatricial stricture. 

Treatment. —This is not the place to consider the treatment 
of cancer of the rectum, but the matter is such an important one 
that it cannot be insisted upon too strongly that every physician 


318 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 

• 

who is consulted by a patient for the relief of rectal symptoms 
should make a careful digital examination, and if the diagnosis 
is not perfectly clear, an examination with the speculum should 
also be made. Were this the rule fewer malignant troubles would 
go so long unsuspected. 

ACQUIRED DEFORMITIES 

Prolapse. —Acute prolapse of the rectum is often seen in 
young infants. At an early age the rectum is a delicate structure, 
more like the small intestine in the adult than like the adult rec¬ 
tum. It is loosely attached in the pelvis, and is therefore easily 
everted by excessive straining at stool, either the result of con¬ 
stipation or of diarrhea. Such a prolapse usually measures from 
one to three inches in length and can hardly be mistaken for any¬ 
thing else. It is a soft tumor covered with mucous membrane, 
either in a normal state or congested or edematous or gangrenous, 
according to the amount of constriction of the anus and the dura¬ 
tion of the prolapse. 

It sometimes happens that an invagination of the gut above the 
rectum may appear at the anus. Even so high an invagination 
as that ot the small intestine through the iliocecal valve has been 
known to protrude from the anus. Under these circumstances the 
protiuding gut is apt to be in a serious condition. If the rectum 
alone has prolapsed its vitality is not seriously affected in most 
cases. 

Treatment. The treatment indicated in acute prolapse is 
the immediate leplacement of the protruding bowel. The patient 
should be placed m some position which will bring the lnps well 
above the epigastrium. A small child may be inverted, if this 
can be done without exciting crying. Delicate manipulation with 
the fingeis will usually succeed. As in reducing a hernia this 
maj be carried out in two ways: The protruding mass may be 
grasped with the hand and compressed, much as one compresses 
the bulb of a hand syringe. This pressure may force the central 
part of the prolapse back into the rectum, and if so the rest will 
easily follow. The other method is to push upward the lowest 
part of the prolapse with the finger. The trouble with this method 
is the difficulty in preventing the prolapse from recurring wffien 
the finger is withdrawn. A good plan is to wrap the finger with 


CHRONIC PROLAPSE 


319 


dry gauze or tissue paper, which sticks to the mucous membrane, 
and then by rotation of the finger to unwind this from the finger, 
leaving it in the rectum until the prolapse has been entirely re¬ 
duced. 

It is necessary fo prevent a recurrence of the prolapse for some 
weeks. Sufficient laxatives or enemata should be given to pre¬ 
vent straining at stool. Defecation should take place in a hori¬ 
zontal position, either on the back or side. The buttocks should be 
tightly strapped together with adhesive plaster. If this becomes 
soiled, the central part should be cut away and new strips placed 
over the old, as the daily peeling off of the old and application 
of new strips will make the skin sore in a short time. 

In infants a cure can almost invariably be effected by these 
means. 

If the prolapse is due to an invagination above the rectum, 
merely crowding the gut back within the anus will not of course 
relieve the trouble. Something may be accomplished, however, 
digitally or by the injection of warm oil combined with inversion 
of the patient. If these simple means are not sufficient to effect 
a cure within a few hours after the first symptoms, laparotomy 
should be performed. 

Chronic Prolapse. —In the lesser degrees of this condition 
there is a protrusion after defecation of the mucous membrane. 
In the severer degrees not only the mucous membrane, but all the 
coats of the rectum are turned out, and when replaced, they again 
prolapse as soon as the patient assumes an upright position and 
takes a few steps. 

The causes of chronic prolapse are the same as the causes of 
chronic hemorrhoids, namely, dilatation and atony of the rectum 
and straining to expel a constipated movement. Prolapse is also 
favored by the overstretching or laceration of the perineum at 
childbirth, by unwise operations upon the rectum leading to paral¬ 
ysis of the sphincter ani, as well as by the relaxation of the tissues 
which comes with old age. It is therefore especially frequent in 
old and feeble persons, though by no means confined to them. 

Diagnosis. —The symptoms are slight, the annoyance of the 
protruding mass covered with mucous membrane being often the 
only one. If this ulcerates, there will of course be a purulent and 
slightly bloody discharge. The diagnosis is always easy, though 



320 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


it may not be so easy to say just what is the degree of prolapse, 
nor whether it is accompanied by a hernial protrusion or not. 

Treatment. —The treatment outlined for acute prolapse can¬ 
not be expected to cure chronic prolapse; the conditions are too 
different; and yet something may be accomplished by attention 
to the bowels, the use of cold water both within and outside of the 
rectum to tone up the muscles, and by rectal and abdominal mas¬ 
sage. Astringents may also be used within the rectum (see p. 
313) or applied to the protruding bowel. 

The bowel may be stiffened by the injection of irritating fluids 
into its tissues, or by the cauterization of its surface. It is evi¬ 
dent that anything which will reduce the flexibility of the rectum 
will make it less easy for a prolapse to occur. It is claimed by 
the advocates of this plan of treatment that the caliber of the 
rectum is also reduced thereby. A fluid commonly employed for 
intramural injection is composed of the following substances: 


I) Salicylic acid . 1 part; 

Sodium biborate. 2 parts; 

Carbolic acid . 4 “ 

Glycerin . 16 “ 


A few minims are injected in two or three places around the 
neck of the prolapse, and after a few minutes the reduction is 
made. Tor two weeks thereafter the patient should keep the 
buttocks strapped together, and should defecate in a horizontal 
position. 

Cauterization of the protruded rectum may be performed 
with a strong acid or with the Paquelin cautery. It is recom¬ 
mended that this cauterization be made in longitudinal lines, 
from four to six according to the size of the bowel. Another 
plan is to reduce the prolapse and insert a speculum having six 
narrow slits in it, so placed that they are wholly above the anal 
canal when the speculum is inserted. The mucous membrane 
projects through these slits into the lumen of the speculum, and 
can be readily and accurately cauterized. 

If these simpler measures fail there are a number of opera¬ 
tions to choose from, such as excision of longitudinal or circular 
strips of mucous membrane; enfolding of a longitudinal fold of 
the whole rectum through a posterior incision; suspension of the 






INCONTINENCE OF THE SPHINCTER AN1 


321 


rectum through a posterior or an abdominal incision, etc. The 
details of these and other operations are found in special and 
general text-books. 

Rectal hernia, with prolapse of a part of the rectum, is 
found in women whose sphincter ani has been damaged in child¬ 
birth. Such a prolapse is of the nature of a hernia, the outer 
portion of which is covered with the everted mucous membrane 
and within which there may be a portion of the vagina or the 
uterus or the intestine or other contents of the peritoneal cavity. 
Such a hernia is always easily reducible. Its cure is to be sought 
by restoration of the sphincter ani. 

Incontinence of the Sphincter Ani. —Inability of the pa¬ 
tient to retain his feces may be due to a great number of causes, 
such as injury to the spinal cord, other forms of paralysis, rup¬ 
ture or division of the sphincter, rigidity of the anal canal, as 
seen in cases of malignant disease, etc. 

A patient may be able to retain solid fecal matter, but un¬ 
able to retain fluid feces; This is frequently the case after resec¬ 
tion of the rectum for malignant disease. 

Diagnosis. —The diagnosis of incontinence is easily made 
from the statement of the patient or those who care for him. But 
the mere knowledge of this one symptom is not a satisfactory diag¬ 
nosis. The physician must ascertain whether incontinence exists 
at all times, and if not, under what circumstances it occurs. He 
must also continue his examination until he has learned the exact 
cause of the lack of control. If proctitis exists, or an ulcer or 
a stricture or malignant disease, appropriate treatment is to be 
instituted. If the loss of sphincteric control has followed a trau¬ 
matism or an operation for hemorrhoids, fistula, or abscess, the 
physical examination should reveal the ability of the patient to 
contract the sphincter ani muscle or its segments in case it has 
been divided in more than one place. These are the cases in which 
a slight operation may cure or benefit a patient otherwise very 
miserable. 

Treatment. —If examination shows that there is no paralysis 
of the sphincter, but that loss of control is due to separation of 
the cut ends of the muscle, an operation should be performed to 
reestablish its continuity. This should not be performed as long 
as any ulcer or sinus exists. 



322 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ANUS AND RECTUM 


The patient should be prepared as for other rectal operations 
(p. 315). A general anesthetic is desirable. A circular incision 
should he made at a distance of a half inch or more from the mar¬ 
gin of the anus, and long enough to expose the cut ends of the 
sphincter ani. Both of these are freed by careful dissection, the 
intervening scar tissue is cut away, and the clean ends of the mus¬ 
cle are closely approximated by three or four sutures of fine 
chromicized catgut prepared to resist absorption for twenty days. 
The skin wound is sutured with fine black silk. Primary union 
is striven for and often obtained; but should this not be the case 
the ultimate result of operation may still be satisfactory if the 
deep sutures hold the muscular ends firmly together until granu¬ 
lation is complete. Hence the desirability of suturing the muscle 
with a catgut which will resist absorption for three weeks. 

The bowels should be kept quiet four or five days. Oil in¬ 
jections should then be administered and mild laxatives. After 
the movement the parts should be carefully cleansed. 

This treatment by restoring the original condition is the best 
that can be employed. Unfortunately it is many times inapplica¬ 
ble, either because of wasting of the sphincter or paralysis of a 
part or the whole of the muscle or on account of the loss of the 
muscle, as after many cases of rectal resection. Under such cir¬ 
cumstances attempts have been made to establish continence by a 
purse string wire suture introduced subcutaneously and allowed 
to remain; by twisting of the rectum and suture in its new rela¬ 
tions; and by other plastic operations described in special text¬ 
books. 

Much can be done to relieve the patient by keeping his stools 
in a solid condition and by washing out the feces regularly once 
or twice a day. If all these measures are of no avail, the question 
of left inguinal colostomy should be considered. A continent 
artificial anus in a situation where it can be cared for by the 
patient is in many respects better than an incontinent natural anus. 


CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES 

Imperforate Anns. The only important malformation of 
the anus or rectum is a lack of communication of the lumen of the 
bowel and the outside world through the anus. The lower bowel 


IMPERFORATE ANUS 


323 


may terminate in the vagina, and normal defecation take place 
in this manner for years. There may he only a minute opening 
between the anus and rectum—a congenital stricture. There may, 
however, be no opening to the bowel, and unless this condition is 
relieved within a short time after birth the death of the infant 
must follow. The anus and the sphincter ani may or may not he 
normally present. If the external structures are perfect and the 
bowel reaches to within a quarter or half an inch of the skin, an 
opening is easily made through the septum, and the continuity of 
the lumen is restored. If the distance from the lower end of the 
rectum to the surface is more than half an inch it may he difficult 
to find the rectum at operation, and some surgeons consider colos- 
tomy preferable to a prolonged attempt to find the bowel. One of 
the difficulties of finding the lower end of the rectum is the fact 
that instead of being situated immediately above the imperforate 
anus, it is often deflected one way or another, usually lying an¬ 
terior to its normal situation. In these cases the mortality after 
operation is high, as it is also after colostomy for imperforate 
anus. If merely a congenital stricture exists, it may be dilated 
or divided, according to circumstances. If dilation is easily per¬ 
formed, it is preferably as a wound is then by avoided. 


f 


33 


SECTION VI 


AFFECTIONS OF TITE ARM AND HAND 

(UPPER EXTREMITY) 


CHAPTER NTH 

INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND 

HAND 

Tiie upper extremity is especially exposed to traumatism. 
Fractures of the various bones in the arm and hand constitute a 
large part of all fractures. The proportion of slighter traumatisms 
is perhaps larger. Moreover so many important structures lie 
close to the skin of this part of the body that a slight injury may 
have serious effects. Familiar examples are an incised wound 
of the front of the wrist, opening the radial or ulnar artery, or 
dividing some flexor tendons; a burn of the palm, producing per¬ 
manent flexion of the fingers; suppuration involving a tendon 
sheath, and preventing further motion of the tendon. 

Contusions. —Diagnosis of contusion is easily made from the 
redness and abrasion of the skin, tenderness on pressure, ecchy- 
mosis, and swelling. If there is loss of function, or if manipula¬ 
tion of the underlying bone is painful, search should be made for 
a fracture or sprain. It may be difficult to differentiate a contu¬ 
sion involving a bone, from a partial fracture, or a fracture with¬ 
out displacement. Without the aid of the X-ray it may be nec¬ 
essary to wait a week or two, to see if the symptoms of deep 
tenderness and disability disappear before asserting positively 
that the bone is uninjured. 

Treatment. —The treatment of simple contusion is given on 
page 2. A sling is in most cases advisable. It is less conspicuous 
if made of a black silk handkerchief or a black ribbon two or three 
inches in width; or if the patient’s pride does not permit even 
this, he may keep his hand between the second and third buttons 
of his coat. 


324 






HEMATOMA 


325 


Contusions about the joints are often associated with sprains, 
and they are therefore discussed under that heading 

Blister. A blister is the lifting up of the superficial portion 
of the epidermis with serous or seropurulent or bloody fluid. 
Blisters are common lesions in many diseases. They are also 
seen in burns and frost-bites. They also follow traumatism. 
The last is the only type of blister which will be here consid¬ 
ered. The traumatism may be a slight, oft repeated friction upon 
skin unaccustomed to it or a sudden more severe traumatism, usu- 
ally in the form of the pinching of the skin. Blisters of the first 
type are common upon the palms of the hand, from rowing a boat 
or using heavy tools, and upon the heels and toes as a result of 
an unusual amount of walking. Blisters of the second type usu¬ 
ally contain a certain amount of blood, and are called blood-blis¬ 
ters. Such a blister is a small hematoma (v. infra). 

Treatment.— In the treatment of a blister the object is to 
protect the tender underlying epithelium for a few days until it 
becomes harder. ITence the blister should not be removed, but its 
fluid should be withdrawn by the oblique passage into it of a 
needle, which enters the sound skin about an eighth of an inch 
away from the edge of the blister. The skin should first be 
cleansed with alcohol, and the needle passed through flame to 
prevent infection. If the whole blister has been torn away, the 
underlying skin should be protected by a wet dressing or a cotton- 
collodion dressing or a simple ointment. 

If a blister contains pus, all of the raised epithelium should 
be at once cut away and a wet antiseptic dressing applied. 

Hematoma. —The description and treatment of hematoma of 
the head (p. 2) is applicable to hematoma of the arm. There 
are, however, two special forms of hematoma peculiar to this 
region. 

Hematoma Beneath the Nail.—If the blood is poured out be¬ 
neath the nail, this is wholly or partly lifted from its bed, and 
even then the unrelieved pressure may cause the patient great 
pain. As the bluish red of the clotted blood shows through the 
translucent nail the diagnosis is unmistakable (Fig. 144). 

Treatment consists in cutting away a narrow transverse strip 
of the nail near its base to relieve the pressure and prevent sup¬ 
puration (Fig. 145). If the base of the formed nail has been 


326 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


separated from tlie matrix, it should he freed from the overlying 
skin with the point of a knife and removed. If the whole nail 



Fig. 144. —Hematoma Beneath the Nail. 
The skin is lifted by the formed nail, the 
outline of which is readily seen. 


Fig. 145. —Incision fok Evacu¬ 
ation of the Blood in Hem¬ 
atoma Beneath the Nail. 


lias been loosened, it should he thus freed from the skin and re¬ 
moved. In any case a dressing should he kept over the finger for 
a few days to prevent dirt from making its way beneath the loos¬ 
ened nail and to protect the tender bed of the nail. 

Cutaneous Hematoma or Blood-blister.—Small hematomata are 
produced in the palmar skin by pinching or by continued rubbing, 
as of an oar. They usually contain bloody serum and are called 
blood-blisters. The contents of these blisters should be pressed out 
through the channel made by passing a clean needle through sound 
skin into the blister. This evacuation may have to be repeated 
once or twice. 

A blow upon the olecranon or upper part of the ulna may pro¬ 
duce a large hematoma. The circulation in this region is not very 









RUPTURE OF THE BICEPS MUSCLE 


327 


active, and if the skin is broken and the wound neglected the hema¬ 
toma may suppurate, even when there is no apparent connection 
between the superficial wound and the hematoma. The treatment 
is then that of an abscess (see p. 40S). 

Rupture of the Biceps Muscle. —The biceps muscle may 
be partly or completely torn, usually by an attempt to lift a too 
great weight. This accident occurs almost exclusively in men, and 
usually in those who have passed their prime, or in those whose 
muscles have been weakened by alcoholism or disease. 

The history given is that of sudden pain in the arm during a 
strain, followed by muscular weakness. If the muscle is only par¬ 
tially torn, the patient is able to flex his forearm, but with nothing 
like the usual power. 

Physical examination confirms the statement of the patient as 
to the loss of muscular power of flexion, especially when the fore¬ 
arm is supinated. Careful palpation will usually reveal a depres¬ 
sion at the site of rupture. This may he in either the tendinous 
or muscular portion of the biceps. Moreover, when the patient 
attempts to contract the muscle it remains flabby, although he 
may move it to a certain extent. If only a part of the muscle 
or one of its heads is ruptured, this part will remain flabby 
while the remaining portion is firmly contracted. Sometimes 
the retraction of the torn portion of the muscle forms a notice¬ 
able hunch. 

Treatment. —The treatment may be operative or non-opera¬ 
tive. In young and healthy subjects the rupture in the muscle or 
tendon should he exposed by a longitudinal incision, the* torn ends 
sutured by fine silk or fine catgut chromatized to resist absorption 
in the tissues for twenty days or more. The skin should he sutured 
without drainage, and the forearm kept in a flexed position by a 
broad sling, or, if the patient cannot he trusted, the arm should 
he fixed in this position by a light gypsum or starch bandage. 
This should he kept up for two or three weeks, after which passive 
motions, and later active motions, may he resumed. 

If the rupture is slight, or if the general condition of the pa¬ 
tient makes an open operation seem useless, non-operative treat¬ 
ment is indicated. The forearm should he flexed at a right angle 
and carried in a sling. Massage may he employed every day or 
every second day, pressure being so directed as to approximate the 



328 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


torn ends of tlie muscle. Bandages or strips of rubber adhesive 
may also be employed toward this end. 

Wounds. —Punctured wounds of the hand or fingers rarely 
give rise to troublesome hemorrhage, but they are often followed 
by suppuration. 

Bites of men and animals should be regarded as punctured 
wounds, and should receive the same treatment. 

Complications.— Incised wounds are significant because un¬ 
derlying structures are often injured, even though the superficial 



Iig* 146. Position of the Radial and Ulnar Arteries at the Front of the 
Wrist. I he curve of the ulna toward the center of the wrist, as it passes the 
head of the ulna, is often more pronounced than it is here represented. Some¬ 
what diagrammatic. 

wound is small. This is especially true if the instrument causing 
the wound is very sharp, as a chisel or a pointed fragment of glass. 
The possible complications of such a wound are incision or division 
of an artery or nerve, or one or more tendons, or the opening of 
a joint. The radial and ulnar arteries are superficial in the wrist, 
and are often injured. One is wont to think of the ulnar artery 
as lying close to the ulnar side of the forearm, forgetting that in 
the wrist where this vessel is superficial it makes a sharp curve 
toward the radial side to clear the head of the ulna and the pisi- 










WOUNDS 


329 


form bone (see Fig. 146). Hence it is often opened in transverse 
cuts, which are, roughly speaking, in the middle of the wrist. 

The ulnar nerve may be cut at the elbow between the inner 
condyle of the humerus and the olecranon. This produces paral¬ 
ysis of the flexor carpi ulnaris, inability to separate the fingers, 
loss of sensation of the outer half of the ring finger and of the 
little finger in front and behind. Division of the ulnar nerve at 
the wrist gives the same symptoms in the hand. 

If the radial nerve is divided at the wrist, sensation is lost in 
the back of the thumb and index-finger. There is no muscular 
paralysis. 

If the median nerve is divided at the wrist its muscular 
branches to the flexors of the forearm are, of course, not affected. 
There will be inability to abduct the thumb and loss of sensation 
in the palmar surface of the thumb and index-finger. 

The symptoms here given are not all the changes which fol¬ 
low these nerve injuries, but they are the most striking ones 
and are sufficient for diagnosis. It is best to disregard sensa¬ 
tion in the middle finger, as anastomosis may give misleading 
symptoms. 

The tendons most often divided in wounds of the arm are those 
of the muscles which have their origin in the forearm and their 
insertion in the hand. Twenty-three such tendons pass through 
the annular ligament. They may be cut either in the wrist, hand, 
or fingers. Most of them are easily palpated when put on the 
stretch by resisted voluntary motion, and a comparison with the 
other hand will usually show whether any one of them is divided; 
but if in doubt, the medical attendant will do well to postpone 
suture of the wound in the skin until he has refreshed his anatom¬ 
ical memory. 

The action of the deep and superficial flexors of the fingers 
may be distinguished as follows: If both are divided, the finger 
cannot be flexed with any considerable force. The lumbricales 
and interossei have only a feeble action as compared with the nor¬ 
mal flexors. If the tendon of the flexor profundus to any finger is 
divided, the patient cannot flex the terminal phalanx when the sec¬ 
ond phalanx is held extended by the surgeon (Fig. 147). If the 
tendon of the sublimis is divided, the patient cannot flex the sec¬ 
ond phalanx when the first is held extended, or at least not until 


330 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 




Fig. 147. —Test for Division' of the Profundus Ten¬ 
don. When the second phalanx is held extended the 
terminal phalanx cannot be flexed voluntarily if the 
profundus is divided. 


after the third has 
been well flexed on 
the second. With 
division of the sub¬ 
limis, the test posi¬ 
tion shown in Fig¬ 
ure 148 cannot be 
assumed. 

Joints of the 
arm and hand are 
most exposed to in¬ 
cision on their pos¬ 
terior aspect. The 
metacarpo - phalan¬ 
geal joints are 
opened far more 
frequently than the 
others. 

Treatment.— 
The treatment of 
wounds of the arm 
and hand consists 
in the removal of 
any dirt, the con¬ 
trol of hemorrhage, 
the approximation 

of the tissues bv 

1 1 

suture if necessarv, 
and a dry dressing, 
or, if the cleansing 
is doubtful, a wet 
dressing. (For the 
details of such 
treatment see p. 
13.) The skin of 
the hand or finger 

should not be cut 
away simply to obtain a straight line of suture. It is well sup¬ 
plied with blood, and heals rapidly. 


Fig. 148. —Test for Division of the Sublimis Ten¬ 
don. When the first phalanx is held extended, the 
patient cannot flex the second; certainly not until the 
terminal phalanx has been flexed—in cases of division 
of the sublimis. 







WOUNDS 


331 



Fig. 149. —Traumatic Ulcers of the Hand; Duration Seventeen Days; Active 
Granulations. In good condition for skin-grafting. Patient aged fifty 3 r ears. 

ness of skin is destroyed, the gap should be covered with skin 
grafts if it is more than one inch in diameter. The diameter of 
an nicer left to close by marginal growth will diminish only by 
about one-quarter of an inch a week, arid the epithelium in a large 
scar thus produced is inferior to that of a Thiersch graft. The 
grafts may be applied to a fresh wound, after it has been cleansed 
and the hemorrhage stopped, or to the resulting ulcer, when its 
base is thickly covered with granulations (Fig. 149). 

Treatment of Minute Wounds of the Fingers.—A pin-prick or 

other wound of the finger or hand, insignificant in itself, may yet 


If a portion of skin has been destroyed in such a manner that 
the edges of the wound cannot be sutured, an ulcer will result. 
If this is so shallow that islands of epithelium are left in its base 
it will quickly become covered with new skin. If the whole thick- 






332 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 

be the starting-point of a serious inflammation. Indeed, most of 
the suppurations of the upper extremity begin in such minute 
wounds. Their proper treatment is, therefore, a matter of no 
small importance. Probably no method of treatment can afford 
infallible protection from infection, but in a rather extensive ex¬ 
perience with this class of wounds the author has never known 
infection to extend beyond the immediate area of the wound, and 
rarely to manifest itself even there when the following rules have 
been observed: 

1. Make the wound bleed promptly by pinching it, sucking it, 
and, if necessary, enlarging it. 

2. Cleanse the adjacent skin by vigorous scrubbing with, strong 
antiseptics, such as turpentine, ether, or bichlorid solution. 

3. Shave away any .surplus dead epithelium. 

4. Apply a wet antiseptic dressing for a few hours. 

5. If the wound contains visible foreign material, e. g., rotten 
wood from a splinter, or has been made by something probably 
covered with pyogenic germs, e. g., an old fish-bone, it should be 
laid open and drained if its track can be followed. 

6. The wound should be inspected on the following day, and 
if it is indurated and tender, an incision should be made through 
the indurated area only. A minute drop of pus may escape. 

Ligation of Vessels. —If a wound has opened a vessel of 
sufficient size to require ligation, the incision, if such is necessary, 
should be made in the long axis of the limb, even though this 
makes an irregular wound. Before the vessel is tied with Ho. 0 
or Ho. 1 catgut it should be entirely isolated, so that no nerve 
may be included in the ligature. A local anesthetic is satisfac¬ 
tory, but some patients prefer a general one in order to avoid the 
nervous shock. Suture of the skin with horsehair or fine black 
silk, and a dry dressing, together with a splint and sling if the 
wound is serious, complete the treatment. 

Suture of Tendons.— A recently divided tendon should be 
sutured with fine chromic catgut (Ho. 0 or 1). Some surgeons pre¬ 
fer fine silk, believing that the catgut makes a rougher suture and 
may be absorbed before the ends of the tendon have firmly united. 
The sheath should then be sutured with plain catgut. The skin 
wound should be closed entirely, or with drainage if infection is 
feared, and the part bandaged in such a position that the sutured 


SUTURE OF TENDONS 


333 


tendon shall be relaxed. It is well to begin passive motions in a 
week or ten days, to prevent adhesions between the tendon and 
its sbeatli. Active motions, very gentle at first, should he begun 
within two weeks of the suture. 

If the ends of the tendon come together without tension a 
simple stitch will suffice (Fig. 150 B). If the proximal part has 




Fig. 150.— Tendon Suture. A, Mattress 
stitch ; B, simple stitch, more likely to 
cut out than a mattress stitch. 


Fig. 151.— Tendon Suture. One 
method of elongation to fill a gap 
between the ends. There are many 
other methods. 


retracted so that the stitch is likely to be pulled upon, a mattress 
stitch is better, as less likely to cut out (Fig. 150 A). Both stitches 
should be passed with a fine needle about one-quarter of an inch 
from the cut end of the tendon. If the gap between the ends is 
too great to permit of direct suture, one or both ends of the ten¬ 
don may he elongated, as shown in Figure 151. This method is 
at best a clumsy one, and as it necessitates splitting the tendon 
sheath for a considerable distance, operators have been searching 
for a better method. 









334 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


Another way of overcoming a gap in a tendon due to retrac¬ 
tion, or due to sloughing of the tendon from suppuration in its 
sheath, is to unite the separated ends by a long silk stitch, making 
no attempt to bring the ends of the tendon together, but leaving 
the thread to act as a part of the tendon (Fig. 152). The silk, 
like all aseptic foreign bodies of small size, becomes encased with 
fibrous tissue, and if the patient persists in passive and active 
motions as soon as the skin has healed, more or less use of an 
otherwise totally helpless finger will result. The reports in the 

few cases in which this method has 
been tried indicate that it is far supe¬ 
rior to the splitting and elongation 
of the tendon itself. It is easy to 
split a recently divided tendon, but 
in the course of weeks or months the 
ends often atrophy so that there is 
is scarcely ’enough left to be recog¬ 
nized. On the other hand, nature is 
capable of filling a gap in a tendon 
if the sheath has not been closed by 
inflammation and if the ends are not 
constantly pulled apart by muscular 
action. 

Suture of Nerves. —If a nerve 
is divided in a recent wound it should 
be at once sutured with very fine cat¬ 
gut or with silk. Three or four sim¬ 
ple sutures should be inserted in the 
sheath of the nerve (Fig. 153). The 
skin should be sutured and the arm 
kept for two or three weeks in such 
a position that the nerve is relaxed. 
Motions should then be gradually re¬ 
sumed. It takes from three to nine 
months to restore function in a di¬ 
vided nerve. Sensation is usually re¬ 
stored before motion. During this 
period the condition of the muscles supplied by the nerve should 
be kept good by massage and electricity. 



Fig. 152. —Tendon Suture. A 
long silk stitch left in place to 
act as a tendon. It becomes 
covered with fibrous tissue 
growing out from the cut ends 
of the tendon. 






WOUNDS OF JOINTS 


335 


If the division of a nerve is an old one, its fibers have prob¬ 
ably so degenerated that repair is out of the question. 

If the divided nerve has retracted, or if a part of it has been 
destroyed, it may be split and turned down. The operation is 
similar to that upon a tendon (Fig. 151). This operation is still 
in the experimental stage. 

If a nerve is injured by a blow, or by 
continued pressure, loss of sensation and of 
motion may follow. If the paralysis is to¬ 
tal, and shows no signs of disappearing in a 
few days, the essential part of the nerve is 
probably divided. If so, the reaction of de¬ 
generation in the muscles supplied by it will 
appear in about fourteen days. The nerve 
should be exposed, ragged ends trimmed off, 
and sutures inserted. A contusion of a 
nerve may give a partial or complete paral¬ 
ysis, but its activity will gradually return, 
until after some weeks or months there is 
a complete restoration of function. This 
should be aided by exercise, massage, and 
electricity. This accident frequently fol¬ 
lows prolonged anesthesia if the patient’s 
arm is allowed to rest on the edge of the 
table (musculospiral), or if the arms are 
too tigbtlv held over the bead (brachial 

J Fig. 153.— Suture of 

plexus). Nerve. The needle 

Wounds of Joints. — A punctured or should be passed 

. . rp . . through the sheath 

incised wound may open a joint, inis acci- only> 
dent is very important because of the infec¬ 
tion which may follow, and may destroy the function of the joint. 
Under such circumstances the opening in the joint capsule should 
not be sutured entirely, but enough space should be left for drain¬ 
age. The skin suture should allow a small wick of rubber tissue 
to extend to the opening in the capsule. Either a dry or wet 
dressing may be used. 

If manifest impurities have entered the joint the opening in 
it should be so enlarged that free irrigation with sterile normal 
saline solution is possible. The drain of rubber tissue should in 








336 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


this case extend through the capsule of the joint. This drain 
should be withdrawn from the joint in twenty-four hours if there 
are no signs of increasing inflammation. A wet dressing should 
be employed. 

In both classes of cases the joint should be immobilized by a 
splint applied, when possible, to the opposite side of the limb. The 
drain through the skin should be left in place two or more 
days, until it is evident that no more fluid is coming from the 
joint. 

If the joint suppurates, the treatment is that given on page 425. 

Foreign Bodies. —Splinters of wood, bits of glass, and parts 
of needles are the objects commonly found in wounds of the hand 
and arm. Bullets and shot are less common. 

There is a popular belief that certain objects are especially 
likely to produce a suppurating wound. Brass filings and the 
slivers of yellow pine have this bad reputation. The former are 
often covered with grease or oil. The latter, on account of their 
strength and sharpness, penetrate more deeply than the ordinary 
splinter. Splinters usually lie obliquely. A small deeply placed 
splinter of new wood may become encysted like a piece of glass, 
and give the same symptoms. 

Fragments of glass are often left in an incised wound because 
the physician is careless in inspecting so clean a wound, or be¬ 
cause the transparent glass is not easily seen. Such wounds do 
not usually suppurate, and they often heal primarily. If a bit 
of glass is left in the wound it becomes surrounded by scar tissue, 
and may not be noticed until the main scar has atrophied. Then 
it is revealed as a hard object in or beneath the skin, giving a 
slight sharp pain when pressed upon or when certain motions are 
made. If the examiner cannot feel the foreign body distinctly, 
and if he does not cause pain every time he makes a certain pres¬ 
sure, he will do well to postpone operation until more definite 
symptoms are present or until a radiograph shows the exact situa¬ 
tion of the object. Sometimes a patient, feeling pain in a scar, 
attributes it to the presence of a foreign body, although it is really 
due to pressure of the scar upon some nerve-fibers. 

A needle is often driven into the hand or forearm while the 
patient is scrubbing, or dusting a curtain. The needle is broken, 
and the doctor is consulted if it breaks below the surface of the 


FOREIGN BODIES 


337 


skin. Sometimes tlie end is in plain sight, or it can be felt just 
beneath the skin. Those cases are more difficult in which the pa¬ 
tient received a punctured wound supposed to be due to a needle, 
although no needle was seen. There is pain on making certain 
motions, and pressure causes pain. These symptoms indicate that 
a fragment of needle, perhaps less than half an inch long, is buried 
in the tissues. A search for it without more definite knowledge 
of its situation is rarely successful. One should resort to a fluoro¬ 
scopic examination or, better still, radiographs should he taken in 
two planes. 

Bullets and shot may he touched with a probe passed through 
the wound of entrance and so diagnosticated. If this is not pos¬ 
sible they should he located by means of the X-ray. 

The fate of a foreign body embedded in the tissues depends 
partly upon its nature and partly upon the entrance with it of 
pathogenic organisms. Most foreign bodies are capable of resist¬ 
ing disintegration in the tissues for an indefinite time. They will, 
therefore, either become encysted or produce a suppuration and a 
sinus, through which, sooner or later, they will he expelled from 
the body. Powder grains and the ink of the tattooer are familiar 
examples of the first class. Xeedles and splinters of glass, being 
practically free from germs, are frequently included in an aseptic 
scar. Splinters of rotten wood, fish-bones, greasy metal filings, 
etc., are almost always cast out by the suppuration. 

Treatment. —The treatment in all these cases should be to 
enlarge the wound of entrance sufficiently to render certain the 
removal of the foreign body and to provide for drainage. The 
skin, if grimy, and the wound should be thoroughly scrubbed with 
soap, turpentine, and ether. In cleaner cases, soap and hot Avater, 
followed by alcohol or an antiseptic solution, will suffice. It is 
well to reduce the pain as much as possible by the use of a local 
anesthetic. A splinter usually enters the skin obliquely; therefore 
the incision should be so made as, to expose the whole splinter, in 
case the wood is rotten. With new wood a short incision may 
suffice. 

If the wound has been caused by glass, its edges should be 
fully retracted, so that no portions of the glass shall be overlooked. 
These wounds are often oblique, or even irregular, due to the con¬ 
traction of the muscles at the time the accident occurs. Hence 


338 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 

there is a greater necessity for a thorough exposure, even though 
the wound in the skin has to be made larger. 

A portion of a needle is often a difficult foreign body to locate. 
If the needle appears in the wound, it can be grasped with forceps 
and extracted. If one end of the fragment is felt just beneath the 
skin, its removal is likewise simple. In many cases, however, it 
can neither be seen nor felt by the doctor, although the patient is 
certain of its jmesence. In these cases plenty of time should be 
given to determine the exact location of the needle before the 
search for it is made with a knife. The best single guide to its 
position is the sensation of the patient when pressure is made upon 
the tissues in which the needle is embedded. The operator should 
make the most of this before administering a general anesthetic. 
Even after a local anesthetic this sensation may be lost. Incision 
for search has to be made in the long axis of the limb, and yet it 
is desirable to so direct the plane of incision, if possible, that the 
needle shall lie across it. 

A bullet is often more readily reached through an incision 
made somewhere else than at the wound of entrance. 

The decision to suture the wound, or to drain it, must rest 
upon the probability of infection. In doubtful cases it is well to 
suture the wound and to drain it with flat gutta-percha drains, 
which can readily be extracted in a few days, if there is then no 
sign of suppuration. In this manner the healing of the wound is 
scarcely interfered with. 

If there is a possibility that all of the foreign material has 
not been removed, a drain should be employed to facilitate the 
casting out of small fragments or the extraction of larger ones. 

Sprain. —A sprain is an injury of the joint caused either by 
a too great strain upon some ligament or by crowding together 
the bones of the joint. It will be seen, therefore, that the lesions 
produced may be either a rupture of some of the ligamentous 
fibers or a separation of the same from their bony attachments ; 
or. on the other hand, a contusion of the cartilaginous end of one 
or both oones. Often these different lesions are associated. They 
can usually be differentiated by carefully pressing the ends of 
the bones together and by drawing them apart, and by overflexing* 
and overextending the joint. If the bones are contused, pain wdl 
be excited when they are pressed together. If the ligamentou> 


SPRAIN 


339 


fibers are broken, or have been pulled from the bone to which 
they were attached, pain will be excited when the ligament of 
which they are a part is put upon the stretch. Besides these 
symptoms, there will be noted a certain amount of swelling, dis¬ 
ability, and pain without manipulation according to the severity 
of the injury. There is sometimes effusion of serum or blood into 



Fig. 154. —Sprain of Finger with Serous Effusion in Joint. 


the overlying soft parts; but in general the ecchymosis caused by 
a sprain is far less than that caused by a fracture. There is often a 
considerable effusion of serum into the cavity of the joint, increas¬ 
ing the swelling, and giving rise to fluctuation if the capsule of 
the joint is accessible to palpation (Big. 154). 

Treatment. —The treatment of a sprain is threefold: To 
prevent strain upon the injured ligaments; to facilitate the absoip 
tion of the exudate ) to prevent adhesions and stiffness of the joint. 
The first indication is met by a splint which shall hold the joint 
in a position most comfortable for the patient. Such a position 
is usually between flexion and extension. The second object of 
treatment is accomplished by massage and passive motion. Light 
rubbing of the joint should be begun either immediately oi aftei 
a day or two, . according to the severity of the lesion. Passive 
motion is next in order of application. Active motion should be 
delayed in severe cases for a few days in order to give the acute 
symptoms time to subside. It is, however, the best means at our 

command to prevent adhesions in a joint. 

A dressing which fulfils very well the first and second indi¬ 
cations and allows active motions to a safe limited extent consists 
24 





340 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 

of strips of rubber plaster from half an inch to an inch in width, 
put on alternately from right to left and from left to right, so 
that they shall cross each other at nearly a right angle. In this 
manner irregularities in outline of the part may be smoothly cov¬ 
ered (Fig. 155). If the wrist joint or one of the interphalangeal 



Fig. 155 . —Adhesive Plaster Strapping for Sprain of the Metacarpo¬ 
phalangeal Joint. Drawn from a photograph. 

joints is sprained, the strip of plaster may be wound directly 
around the part. 

If this dressing causes venous congestion, it may be slit longi¬ 
tudinally on the side opposite the sprain. In case of the larger 
joints it is only necessary to apply the strips through two-thirds 
of the circumference of the limb. 

Sprain of the Shoulder (Subdeltoid Bursitis ).—A common in¬ 
jury of the shoulder is partly a contusion, partly a sprain. It fol¬ 
lows falls either upon the hand or upon the shoulder itself, and 
sometimes the effects of exposure are added to those of the trau¬ 
matism. I his condition of the shoulder is in some cases associ¬ 
ated with neuritis, and in others is accompanied by a paralysis 
due to overstretching or pressure upon some part of the brachial 
plexus or of the circumflex nerve. Paralysis of the affected mus¬ 
cles then becomes a prominent symptom. 

Anatomically it is to be noticed that the shoulder is more 
thoroughly covered with muscular tissue than any other joint in 
the body. The large muscles about the hip-joint do not overlie 





SPRAIN 


341 


the great trochanter, and are therefore not likely to he injured 
by direct falls upon the hip; while the joint itself is so firm that 
sprains are not likely to follow indirect violence. On the other 
hand, lax joints, such as the wrist, are constantly exposed to vio¬ 
lence, both by direct blow and by sudden overstretching, hut there 
is no muscular tissue in the vicinity to he injured. The shoulder- 
joint then is peculiar in its muscular covering; and while the joint 
itself is so freely movable that it is not likely to suffer from over¬ 
stretching, the muscular and fibrous planes and bursae and nerves 
about it are exposed to injury either from overstretching or from 
a direct blow. 

Diagnosis.— A patient who has injured his shoulder by fall¬ 
ing on the hand, or on the shoulder itself, either presents him¬ 
self within a day or two after the accident on account of the 
pain and disability, or else he seeks advice in a week or two 
because improvement under home remedies has been so slow 
that he fears that the injury is more serious than he at first 
supposed. 

Examination of the shoulder after all clothing has been re¬ 
moved from both shoulders and arms shows an absence of bony 
deformity; and only a slight swelling over the head of the humerus 
anteriorly and exteriorly. Direct pressure is not painful, nor is 
pressure made upon the elbow in such a manner as to crowd the 
head of the humerus against the scapula. Both active and passive 
motions are limited by pain, and usually to about the same extent. 
Internal rotation is not very painful, and the patient can often 
put his hand behind his back. External rotation and abduction 
cause pain in the anterior portion of the deltoid muscle. If the 
elbow is fixed at the side and the forearm flexed at a right angle, 
the patient may he able to rotate the arm outward sufficiently to 
bring the hand directly forward, though even this is usually quite 
painful. If asked to abduct the arm, the patient raises the scap¬ 
ula and humerus together, not changing the angle between them. 
He cannot usually raise his hand as high as the top of his head. 
When the elbow is at the side it can he pushed backward with far 
less pain than it can he pushed forward. In other words, the 
lesion seems to he located in. the anterior portion of the deltoid 
muscle, or immediately beneath it, since contraction of this muscle 
or passive motion of the arm made in such a manner as to stretch 


342 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


it over the head of the bone causes pain. Other signs of inflam¬ 
mation are wanting. 

If two weeks or more have elapsed since the accident, there 
will be noticed the additional symptom of atrophy of the deltoid, 
apparently from disuse, and the humerus will stand out more 
prominently on the affected side, so that without a careful exami¬ 
nation one might think some bony deformity was present. Such 
an accident occurring to a patient who is a regular whisky drinker 
is usually sufficient to produce a neuritis of the circumflex nerve. 

Neuritis of the shoulder or arm, whether alcoholic or other¬ 
wise, may occur without traumatism. The pain then exists when 
the limb is at rest as well as when it is moved. The pain, too, will 
probably not be limited to so small an area. Acute articular rheu¬ 
matism, gonorrheal arthritis, suppurative arthritis, tuberculosis, 
and syphilis of this joint all have such marked symptoms due to 
temporary or permanent derangement of the joint that they can 
hardly be mistaken for simple sprain. 

The effects of sprain last for some weeks or months, and in 
the alcoholic, u rheumatic," old, and neglected, complete use of the 
joint may never be regained. 

Treatment. —The best treatment for sprain of the shoulder 
is bathing the shoulder twice a day with very hot water, follow¬ 
ing this with vigorous rubbing. Two or three times a week the 
surgeon or some other responsible person should perform abduc¬ 
tion and external rotation of the arm, as fully as the patient can 
bear it, to prevent permanent limitation of motion. The patient 
himself should make full active motions of the joint several times 
a day. Counter-irritation may be required to allay pain. 

Neuritis. —Neuritis of the arm occurs spontaneously, or from 
exposure to cold, or as a complication of sprain and other injuries. 
Long rides in automobiles is a fruitful cause of neuritis, espe¬ 
cially in those unaccustomed to severe muscular exercise. If the 
history of the attack is confusing a differential diagnosis can usu¬ 
ally be made by the existence of pain along the nerve trunks 
and their branches, when the arm is at rest as well as when it is 
moved. Sometimes paralysis, complete or partial, is the striking 
symptom. This is the case when the brachial plexus is injured 
by too violent attempts to reduce a dislocation of the shoulder; 
or by prolonged elevation of the arms above the head in sleep 


ACUTE NON-SUPPURATIVE TENOSYNOVITIS 343 


or anesthesia; or when the musculospiral is caught and pressed 
upon by the callus in fracture of the shaft of the humerus. 

The local treatment of neuritis consists in the application 
of heat or cold or counter-irritants to relieve pain and improve 
local circulation, with rest of the affected parts. Later bathing, 
massage, and electricity are beneficial, and still later active motion. 
It is in these cases that the daily use of a mechanical vibrator 
proves very satisfactory. If there is continued pressure upon the 
nerve, as from a broken bone or callus, this should he removed 
early. If there is reason to think that the nerve may have 
been ruptured, it should be exposed for suture. In most cases 
occasional passive motions should be made from the first, to 
prevent the formation of adhesions, limiting the free motions of 
the joints. 

Acute Non-suppurative Tenosynovitis. —This cumber¬ 
some title is used to indicate a condition which a traumatism 
may produce in any tendon sheath, but which is most common 
in those of the extensor tendons of the thumb and radial side of 



Fig. 156 . —Diagram of the Back of the Right Wrist to Show the Relations 
of the Tendons to the Radius and to One Another. Note that the ten¬ 
dons of the extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis lie between the tendons of 
the extensors of the thumb and the shaft of the radius. When in violent action 
each pair saws on the other, and also on the bone. 


the hand. It is marked by tenderness and swelling, and a peculiar 
fine crepitus or creaking which is due apparently to a loss of polish 
of the tendons and inner lining of the synovial sheaths, espe¬ 
cially where they lie close to the radius about two inches above 
the plane of the joint (Fig. 156). The slightest motion of the 












344 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 

thumb or liand ? whether active or passive, will produce this 
creaking. 

The history given by the patient is almost invariably as fol¬ 
lows: After a period of comparative idleness, he went to work at 
moving furniture or polishing wood or some occupation requiring 
equally severe muscular effort. Next day his arm was sore, but 
he kept on working until the pain compelled him to stop. This 
crepitus may persist for five days or a week after work has been 
given up, although if the hand is kept absolutely at rest on a 
splint, it usually disappears in a day or two. In slight cases it 
may wear off in a few minutes—during the diagnostic manipula¬ 
tion by a class of students, for example. In some workshops this 
tenosynovitis is of common occurrence among the new men em¬ 
ployed. 

While the above mentioned cases represent the usual type of 
tenosynovitis, the writer has known this lesion to be produced 
in the sheath of the extensor tendon of the index-finger, the cor¬ 
responding metacarpal bone having been fractured some weeks pre¬ 
viously, and the patient having returned to work while there was 
still a sharp projection posteriorly at the site of fracture, due 
partly to displacement and partly to callus. Pulling the extensor 
tendon backward and forward over this bony prominence set up 
the dry tenosynovitis. 

Treatment. —The treatment of these cases is comprised in 
two words—rest and counter-irritation, the former of which is 
far more important, while the latter will relieve the acute pain 
which exists in the first few days. A light splint, compound 
iodine ointment, and a gauze or starch bandage make up the dress¬ 
ing which should be left in place for four or five days. If symp¬ 
toms persist, the dressing should be repeated. The patient should 
be advised to begin very gradually to use the hand. 

Serous Synovitis. —The joints of the upper extremity are 
not so prone to fill with fluid after a traumatism as are the 
joints of the lower extremity. Still such serous effusions occur. 
Figure 157 shows distention of the right shoulder-joint fol¬ 
lowing an unrecognized dislocation. Six ounces of the fluid 
which was slightly bloody, was aspirated. Note the flattening of 
the outline of the shoulder which resulted from the aspiration 
(Fig. 158). 



SEROUS SYNOVITIS 


345 



Fluid in the elbow-joint distends the arm posteriorly on either 
side of the olecranon. A small amount of fluid will give fluc¬ 
tuation. 

Injuries of the joints of the wrist and fingers usually cause so 
much swelling of the overlying skin and subcutaneous tissue that 


Fig. 157 . —Aspiration of Right Shouldf.r-joint for Traumatic Synovitis; Six 

Ounces of Bloody Serum Removed. 

the outline due to fluid in the joint is obscured. In a chronic * 
synovitis the fluid in the joint is readily recognized. It is gen¬ 
erally of a tubercular character (p. 440). 

The treatment of serous synovitis is that of the injury, of 
which the effusion is only a symptom. The amount of fluid will 
rarely be so great as to require aspiration. 

Bursitis. —The olecranon bursa may fill with serum as the 
result of a single severe blow or after repeated slight traumatisms 
(miner’s elbow). It forms a smooth, tense, somewhat tender, 
fluctuating tumor between the skin and the olecranon process 
(Fig. 158). If the skin is broken by the injury, the bursa is 
likely to become infected, and then redness and edema of the 
skin will be added, and the tenderness will be greatly in¬ 
creased. If the bursa is punctured there will be a discharge of 






346 INJURIES TO THE SOFT PARTS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


thin mucous or purulent fluid. For infected bursitis see 
page 427. 

Other bursae of the arm are rarely affected by an injury. 

Treatment. —The treatment of an uncomplicated case of 
olecranon bursitis consists in rest to the joint and pressure, with 
wet dressings if the skin is abraded. In a later stage of the trou¬ 
ble, counterirritation, then aspiration and pressure, may be tried. 



Fig. 158.—Acute Traumatic Serous Olecranon Bursitis 
Cured by aspiration and pressure. 


If these measures fail, the bursa may be opened longitudinally, 
and its cavity drained with gauze, so that it will heal by granula¬ 
tions. A better plan is to dissect out the bursa and suture the 
wound. This requires a general anesthetic, and takes longer, but 
‘it does away with a tedious period of recovery. (Compare the 
paragraphs on diagnosis and treatment of the prepatellar bursa, p. 
47 G.) 






CHAPTER XIY 


DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE 

ARM AND HAND 

DISLOCATIONS 

The records of a large hospital for a period of years show 
that two-thirds of the dislocations treated there involved the shoul¬ 
der-joint, and that three-fonrths of all dislocations treated were of 
some joint of the arm or hand. 

A dislocation of a joint is an injury by which one of the 
articulating bones has been pushed out of its normal relation 
to the other. The dislocation may be partial or complete. It 
may be reduced spontaneously at the time of injury, in which 
case only the symptoms of a sprain will persist. In other cases 
reduction is easily accomplished; while in still others it is diffi¬ 
cult, and may even be impossible without an operation. 

The symptoms of dislocation are those of a sprain of the joint, 
viz., pain, swelling, tenderness, and possibly ecchymosis, and in 
addition marked deformity, and great limitation of motion. But 
these last named symptoms, which are so characteristic in many 
cases, may in others be obscured by the swelling. Axial deviation 
of the bones is another symptom which is often of great diagnostic 
value. 

General Remarks on Treatment. —There are two gen¬ 
eral methods of reducing a dislocated bone. One is to make trac¬ 
tion until the distal bone slips into its true relation to the proximal 
bone. The other plan is to swing the lower end of the distal 
bone toward the side on which it is displaced; for example, flexion 
in case of an anterior dislocation of the finger, overextension in 

case of a backward dislocation. 

Reduction is interfered with by muscular contraction, by the 
irregular shape of the bones, by intervening ligaments or othei 
tissues. 


347 


348 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


Muscular contraction may be overcome by an anesthetic or 
by long continued traction in such a manner as to tire out the 
muscles or by dexterity on the part of the surgeon, so that manipu¬ 
lation is made when the patient’s attention is distracted, and his 
muscles are off their guard. The various motions made for reduc¬ 
tion should never be violent nor powerful. That which one can 
accomplish with great force can almost always be accomplished 
with little force if properly directed for a sufficient time; and 
permanent injury is likely to follow the use of violence. 

Manipulation of the bones at the joint, while an assistant 
makes traction at a distance, will favor reduction by guiding one 
bone past the other, and through the rent in the capsule if the 
bone has protruded. Such action may well be compared to draw¬ 
ing a shoe-button through the buttonhole by means of a button¬ 
hook. 

Tf all other measures fail to reduce a dislocation, an incision 
should be made for this purpose. The risk of infection and a 
subsequent stiff joint is not great when the operation is properly 
performed. It is better to assume this risk than to suffer the 
permanent disablement of an unreduced dislocation. 

A common mistake is to give too favorable a prognosis after 
a dislocation has been satisfactorily reduced. Except in cases in 
which the capsule of a joint is abnormally loose, the bones can¬ 
not be dislocated without producing at least as much injury 
to the surrounding parts as exists in a severe sprain. While 
such injury is many times perfectly recovered from, the con¬ 
valescence may be most tedious, and in many cases the func¬ 
tions of the joint are never fully regained. This is especially 
true if the interval between dislocation and reduction is a 
long one. 

The question is sometimes asked, IIow long after the occur¬ 
rence of a dislocation is it possible to replace the bone ? Ho defi¬ 
nite answer can be given. My own experience tends to show that 
manipulation is rarely successful if the interval is more than four 
weeks. Furthermore, if a reduction is then accomplished, it is 
less complete than when accomplished promptly, and extra pre¬ 
cautions are needed to keep the bone in place. Before attempting 
to replace the bone, the surgeon should move it about in all direc¬ 
tions, to break up adhesions, overcome stiffness of the muscles, 


GENERAL REMARKS ON TREATMENT 


349 



Fig. 159. —Dislocation of the Thumb of Seven Years’ Duration. 

boy aged twelve years. 


Patient a 


and so to gain as much freedom of motion as possible. Not until 
this lias been done should the specific motions of reduction be per- 


Fig. 100. —Radiograph to Show Relations of Bones in Dislocation of the 
Thumb of Seven Years’ Duration. Same subject as Fig. 159. Note the 
formation of a new bony articulation on the back of the metacarpal. 







350 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

formed. In these late cases a general anesthetic is absolutely indi¬ 
cated. 

The condition of an unreduced dislocation improves some¬ 
what as months go by. The ends of the hones form imperfect 
sockets for themselves, so that the functions of the joint are par¬ 
tially restored, but its use is more or less painful. The deformity 
is of course permanent. These points are strikingly illustrated in 
Figures 159 and 160. The radiograph shows both the bony out¬ 
lines and the contour of the dislocated thumb. In this case subse¬ 
quent growth of the bones has increased their abnormality. 

By operation in a case of long standing dislocation one may 
reasonably hope to secure a correct alinement of the bones and 
some improvement of function with less pain. A normal joint 
may be hoped for, but should never be promised. The ultimate 
success depends not a little upon the faithful performance of 
active and passive motions of the joint, massage, and hot bathing. 

Dislocations of the Shoulder. —The humerus may be dis¬ 
located upon the scapula in any direction excepting upward. An 
upward dislocation can only take place if the acromion process is 
broken off, and this accident rarely happens. The form of dislo¬ 
cation which exists in more than ninety-five per cent of the cases 
is downward and forward beneath the coracoid process. The in¬ 
jury is usually produced by a fall on the outstretched arm or 
hand. The capsule of the joint is torn anteriorly in its lower 
part. 

The signs peculiar to dislocation of the humerus are absence 
of the head of the bone from its socket, flattening of the shoulder, 
projection of the elbow, and the impossibility of bringing it to 
the side of the body, and most important of all, the presence of 
the head of the bone in an abnormal situation, usuallv below the 
coracoid process. There is also a difference in the length of the 
two arms, measured from the tip of the acromion to the external 
condyle of the humerus. There is a shortening on the affected 
side, which is increased by abduction of the arm. 

Treatment. —Reduction of the bone by a direct pull upon 
the arm is a difficult procedure, often requiring great force, and 
exposing the patient to injury of the axillary vessels or nerves; 
but a long continued, slight pull will often accomplish the end 
in view without great pain and without serious risk. Stimson 


DISLOCATIONS OF THE ELBOW 


351 


carries this out by allowing the patient to lie upon a high canvas 
cot, with his arm hanging through a hole in the canvas. To his 
wrist is attached a two pound weight. The traction will grad¬ 
ually overcome the muscles and will bring the head of the bone 
back into position in less than ten minutes. 

The usual method of reducing a dislocated humerus is to 
place the patient upon his back cn a firm table; to flex, extend, 
abduct, and rotate the humerus for several minutes, in order to 
break up adhesions, and to partially tire out the muscles. The 
next step is to flex the forearm on the arm, and to forcibly rotate 
the latter outward for two or three minutes until the muscles yield 
to the steady tension. With the arm still rotated, the elbow is 
carried upward across the chest, and as the head of the bone slips 
into its socket, the hand is brought over to the opposite shoulder, 
and fixed there by a strap of adhesive plaster or a bandage. This 
simple manipulation, known as Kocher’s method, will usually suc¬ 
ceed in reducing a fresh dislocation. It can be performed either 
with or without an anesthetic. 

In other cases inward rotation of the arm, followed by a sud¬ 
den hitch outward of the upper arm, will throw the head of the 
bone back into place. 

When the dislocation has been reduced the arm should be 
kept in a sling, but it need not be firmly bandaged to the body 
unless the patient is very untrustworthy. Such close confine¬ 
ment tends toward stiffness of the shoulder, and this should be 
avoided when possible. The shoulder should therefore be bathed 
and massaged daily, and slight passive and active motions allowed 
(see treatment of sprain, p. 339). The elbow should not be 
raised to the level of the shoulder for two or three weeks, lest 
the dislocation be reproduced. 

Dislocations of the Elbow* —Dislocation of the elbow is 
not a common accident, for the reason that the ulna is so closely 
articulated with the humerus that an injury is more likely to break 
the lower part of the humerus than it is to produce a dislocation. 

The head of the radius may be dislocated either backward or 
forward (Fig. 161) or to one side. 

The commonest form of elbow dislocation is the backward 
dislocation of both radius and ulna (Fig. 162), with or without 
fracture of the coronoid process. If no fracture exists, the dis- 


352 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


location is of necessity an extreme one, since the coronoid process 
is carried behind the articular surface of the humerus. This 
produces a deformity which should not be overlooked. The tendon 



Fig. 161. —Radiograph of Forward Dislocation of the Head of the Radius. 

I ive Months’ Duration, and Fracture of the Ulna of Three Weeks’ 

Duration. Patient a girl aged seven years. 

of the triceps is tightened when an attempt is made to flex the 
forearm; and the whole olecranon portion of the ulna k posterior 
to the condyles of the humerus when the forearm is at right angle 
with the arm. Xormal motions of the joint are considerably 
limited. The head of the radius, recognized by palpation and 
rotation of the wrist, may he felt to the outer side of the olecranon. 
In case the ulna alone is dislocated, the head of the radius will 
remain in its natural position. The dislocation of the forearm 
in this case will not be directly backward, hut the forearm will 
swing round upon the head of »the radius as a pivot, so that if 
the forearm is held at right angles with the arm in the position 
of supination, the hand will he considerably nearer the median 
line of the body than it ought to be. If the radius is dislocated 
with the ulna the forearm may be carried directly backward, or 
it may be more or less laterally displaced. In every case of dis¬ 
location or other injury about the elbow, it is of the greatest im¬ 
portance to determine the relations of the two condyles of the 
humerus, the tip of the olecranon and the head of the radius. 




DISLOCATIONS OF THE ELBOW 353 

Dislocation at the elbow is often combined with fracture of 
some bone. In this case the characteristic signs will be more or 
less obscured. Indeed, injuries of the elbow-joint afford some 
of the most difficult diagnoses, and the surgeon should not miss 
the aid offered by radiographs made in the anteroposterior and 
bilateral directions. 

Treatment. —Backward dislocation of the elbow-joint, if of 
recent occurrence, can usually be reduced without difficulty. The 
patient should be fully anesthetized. The range of motion of the 
forearm on the arm is then to be increased by repeated gentle 
manipulation in all directions, and then, while an assistant fixes 
the upper arm, the surgeon makes an attempt to unlock the ulna 
from the humerus and bring it forward. Sometimes this is easily 
accomplished; sometimes a number of efforts must be made before 
success is obtained. As in all dislocations, strategy rather than 



Fig. 162.—Radiograph Showing Backward Dislocation of Both Radius and 
Ulna of Five Months’ Duration. Patient a man aged fifty-eight. An opera¬ 
tion was necessary to reduce this dislocation. 

great force should be employed. It is sometimes possible to slide 
the ulna toward the inner side of the humerus, and then to bring 
it forward. When one bone has been reduced, or in case only one 
of the bones is dislocated, the bone which is in place acts as a 
lever to drag the other one into place if a firm lateral motion, 
either abduction or adduction, is combined with the forward trac¬ 
tion upon the forearm. 









354 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


It is said that reduction by manipulation is rarely possible 
in dislocation of the elbow-joint which has lasted a month or more. 
In every case the manipulation should first be tried, and tried 
most thoroughly, not only on account of the possibility that it may 
succeed, but because the added freedom of motion thereby obtained 
is of the greatest help to the operator in case he has to expose the 
bones through incisions. The best incisions to employ in this in¬ 
stance are two lateral ones, linear longitudinally wdien the fore¬ 
arm is extended, but more or less curved in the semiflexed position 
of an old dislocation. 

When the elbow has been reduced by manipulation or opera¬ 
tion, the forearm should be flexed to a right angle and kept so 
by a sling, or a gypsum bandage, or molded splints. As soon as 
possible passive motions and massage and hot bathing should be 
instituted. Such treatment should be begun within a week if a 
fresh dislocation has been reduced by manipulation, and as soon 
as the wounds will permit in cases reduced by an open operation. 
It is well to remember that oft-repeated slight motions have a 
far greater curative value than a few violent ones. For this rea¬ 
son active motions made by the patient himself are especially to 
be encouraged. He should be given certain definite motions to 
practise several times daily which will tend to increase the exist¬ 
ing range of motion. 

Subluxation of the Radius. —Dislocation downward of the 
head of the radius, or subluxation, as it has been called, may be 
produced in young children by jerking them or lifting them sud¬ 
denly by one hand. The head of the radius is pulled downward 
out of the coronoid ligament, usually without other injury. Ex¬ 
amination will show 7 a certain amount of tenderness at the seat of 
injury and loss of function, especially in the matter of pronation 
and supination of the hand; but these signs are frequently ob¬ 
scured by the fact that a young child will refuse to make any 
motions of an injured joint through fear. Hence the symptoms 
elicited may differ in nowise from those of a sprain of the elbow. 
The only characteristic sign, therefore, is the absence of the head 
of the radius from its normal position, and its presence slightly 
below this point. Careful measurement from the external condyle 
of the humerus to the styloid process of the radius will show that 
the distance is slightly increased upon the injured side. A differ- 


DISLOCATION OF THE THUMB 


355 


ential diagnosis between this injury and fracture of the neck of 
the radius can best he made by an X-ray examination. 

Ireatment. —This dislocation is easily reduced, either with 
or without an anesthetic. The upper arm should be grasped firmly 
near its lower end at the same time that the hand and lower end 
of the radius is also firmly held. The forearm should he extended, 
and the radius pushed steadily upward at the same time that it is 
rotated slightly to right and left. In this manner it can be slipped 
hack into place much as a peg is worked into a hole. 

Dislocation of the "Wrist. —Dislocation of the wrist is a 
rare occurrence, owing to the fact that the lower end of the radius 
is broken by an injury which might otherwise cause a dislocation. 
The deformity, whether anterior or posterior, is extreme, resem¬ 
bling that of Colies’s fracture with marked displacement of the 
lower fragment. Motion at the wrist-joint is greatly limited. The 
commonest dislocation of a single bone is that of the semilunar. 
Hot applications favor reduction. If this is not so obtained, opera¬ 
tion is indicated. After reduction, the hand should be kept for 
two weeks or more upon an anterior splint. 

Dislocation of the Thumb. —Dislocation of the carpo¬ 
metacarpal joint of the thumb occurs rarely. Fracture of the 
metacarpal bone is common. If the fracture is near the- base it 
may be difficult to differentiate it from a dislocation without the 
use of the X-ray. Crepitus, a difference in measurements, and 
the impossibility in making a perfect reduction will indicate frac¬ 
ture ; but in the presence of considerable swelling these signs may 
not be clearly obtained. 

This dislocation is easily overcome by manipulation. Adhesive 
plaster strapping will prevent its recurrence (see Fig. 155, p. 340), 
or a starch bandage may be applied to the thumb and wrist. 

The proximal phalanx of the thumb may be dislocated back¬ 
ward. The anterior portion of the capsule is torn from the meta¬ 
carpal and the thumb rests upon the posterior surface of the meta¬ 
carpal, sometimes forming an angle of ninety degrees with its 
shaft. It is evident that such a dislocation, if unreduced, wall 
render the thumb nearly useless (Figs. 159 and 160, p. 349). 
This condition is easily recognized. A fracture may be followed 
by posterior displacement of the distal portion, but it does not give 
such an axial deviation as dislocation. 


356 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


Treatment. —Reduction is sometimes made difficult by the 
interposition of the torn capsule or the outer sesamoid hone, or hy 
the position of the head of the metacarpal between the two heads 



Fig. 163. Full Extension of Adult Thumbs. Right thumb normal; left thumb 

abnormally overextended. 

of the flexor brevis muscle. To avoid these hindrances the sur¬ 
geon should first bring the metacarpal into the center of the palm 
so as to relax the flexor brevis muscle, should flex the distal pha¬ 
lanx to relax the flexor longus tendon, and should increase the 
dorsal flexion of the proximal phalanx and rotate the bone slightly 
from side to side in order to dislodge any structures which have 
intervened between the bones. The base of the phalanx is next to 
be pushed along the posterior surface of the metacarpal until it 
is partly beyond it. Rot until then should flexion be attempted. 

If reduction is not accomplished, the patient should be anes¬ 
thetized, and another attempt at reduction should be made. If 
this is not completely successful, the joint should be exposed by a 





DISLOCATION OF A FINGER 


357 


radial incision and normal relations established. Perfect restora¬ 
tion of function should follow. This operation should also he 
performed in cases of dislocation of long standing. Under such 
circumstances resection of the head of the metacarpal will usually 
he necessary. The results are then not as perfect, hut the use of 
the thumb is far greater than if it is allowed to remain perma¬ 
nently displaced. 

In either operation the wound may he closed at once or a horse¬ 
hair drain may he used. This should extend only as far as the 
capsule of the joint and should he removed in forty-eight hours if 
there is no suppuration of the wound. The thumb should he band¬ 
aged in a slightly flexed position. If the joint suppurates it should 
he treated by drainage through the incision, and a wet dressing 
and a splint should he applied, as described on page 425. 

Overextension of Thumb.—Overextension of the first phalanx 
of the thumb, simulating a dislocation, is possible in many per- 
It is due to an abnormal laxity of the anterior ligaments, 


sons. 











either the persistence of an infantile condition or the result of 
traumatism in childhood (Fig. 163). 

Dislocation of a Finger. —Dislocation of the metacarpo¬ 
phalangeal joint of a finger may occur, hut this is not common, on 
account of the strong ligaments; consequently fracture of the head 
of the metacarpal is the usual result of injury in this locality. A 
differential diagno¬ 
sis between the two 
can usually he made 
by taking exact 
measurements and 
comparing them 
with those of the 
opposite hand. A 
pair of calipers is 
convenient for this 
purpose. A differ¬ 
ence may also he 
observed in the 
knuckle when the 

p « p flpvod Fig. *64.—Posterior Dislocation of the Terminal 
° TS ar - • Phalanx of the Forefinger, and Radiograph of 

In this position the THE Same. Patient a man aged twenty-three years. 









358 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

knuckle is wholly formed by the head of the metacarpal, and will 
not, therefore, be altered in a dislocation, whereas in fracture it 
will he less prominent. 

Dislocation of one phalanx of the finger upon another may be 
anteroposterior (Fig. 164) or lateral (Figs. 166 and 167). The 



Fig. 165. —Reduction of Posterior Dislocation of the Terminal Phalanx of 
the Forefinger by Operation. Photograph two weeks later. Same patient 
as shown in Fig. 164. 


cause is usually a blow upon the finger-tip or a fall upon the out¬ 
stretched hand. Sometimes the finger is caught between two mov¬ 
ing hard surfaces, which, in the lateral dislocation here illustrated, 
were the teeth of a horse. 

The diagnosis of these dislocations is readily made unless there 
is great swelling. The eye can detect the error in the bony aline- 
ment, which cannot be corrected, while the range of motion of the 
joint will be distinctly limited. 




DISLOCATION OF A FINGER 


359 



Fig. 166. —Lateral Dislocation Fig. 167. —Radiograph of Lateral Dislo- 
of Little Finger due to the cation of Little Finger. Same patient 

Bite of a Horse. as shown in Fig. 166. 

with by the interposition of the ligaments, and the various pulls 
and twists of sympathetic friends will in such cases merely in¬ 
crease the traumatism and its resulting swelling. 



If the dislocated bone is allowed to remain in its abnormal 
position the finger will not be entirely useless, but the range of 
motion of the affected joint will never be fully regained and the 
deformity will be permanent. Hence, treatment is indicated in 
most cases, even of an operative character, if reduction cannot 
otherwise be obtained. 

Treatment. Reduction of a partial dislocation is simple, and 
is usually accomplished by a bystander or by the patient himself. 
In some cases, however, torn ligaments intervene between the ends 
of the bones, making perfect reduction impossible. The reduction 
of a complete dislocation is 

more apt to be interfered r ___ 








360 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

As in all dislocations, the simplest measures should first be 
tried. Extension should first be made upon the distal portion at 
the same time that the dislocated bone is manipulated. If this 
fails, the axial deviation of the displaced distal bone should be 
exaggerated, and while traction is made upon it in this direction 
an attempt should be made to crowd its base past the head of the 
proximal bone. Unless this last effort is successful it is useless 
to swing the shaft of the bone into a correct line. If these efforts 
fail, continuous traction may be employed. A pound or two pound 
weight should be fastened to the finger by adhesive strips, and the 
hand allowed to hang vertically downward. If this method is not 
successful in fifteen or twenty minutes, it should be abandoned. 

If all these methods fail, it is necessary to expose the joint 
by two lateral incisions, to remove intervening ligaments and new 
formed cicacricial tissue if the dislocation is an old one, and to 
pry the bones back into place. When this has been accomplished 
the wounds should be closed by suture with horsehair or fine 
black silk (Eig. 165). 

Whatever the treatment, when the dislocation has been reduced 
it is not likely to return. It is only necessary to apply an anterior 
splint of wood to the finger, or its motions may simply be confined 
by strips of adhesive plaster wound about the finger spirally or 
circularly. 

In any case in which a bone is used as a lever in manipula¬ 
tions the risk of fracture should be borne in mind. 

If a dislocation remains unreduced for some weeks, fibrous tis¬ 
sue forms about the ends of the bones, so that reduction will be 
impossible without operation. The X-ray may show no trace of 
this tissue, but may give the impression that reduction will be 
very easy, as was the case in the patient whose finger is shown in 
Figures 166 and 167. 

If the patient is a child, and the dislocation remains unre¬ 
duced, continued growth will alter the shape of the bones, and 
may even establish a new joint, as shown in Figure 160, 
page 349. 

Drop-finger. —A blow upon the end of the finger may rup¬ 
ture the posterior part of the capsule of the distal joint. As this 
part of the capsule is the extensor tendon of the finger spread out 
flat, it is impossible in such circumstances to extend the distal pha- 


DROP-FINGER 


,301 


lanx, which drops forward (Figs. 168 and 169). This deform¬ 
ity is known as drop-finger or mallet-finger or “ base-ball-finger. ” 
Treatment. —If seen at once and kept continuously in extern 
sion for two or three weeks by a light anterior splint, union of the 



Fig. 168.— Drop-Finger or Mallet-Finger. On account of rupture of the extensor 
tendon which forms the posterior ligament of the terminal joint, extension is 
impossible. 

tendon to the bone will often take place. If the deformity is 
neglected for some days the same treatment may be tried, but 
with less probability of success. If no union results after several 
weeks of treatment, an attempt should be made to sew the end 
of the tendon to the base of the last phalanx with fine silk. The 
incision should be a U-shaped one, the opening of the U directed 
upward, the base of the U crossing the finger about midway be¬ 
tween the joint and the point where the skin is reflected to the 



Fig. 169.— Traumatic Drop-Finger of Three Months’ Duration. Patient aged 

sixty years. 

nail. In turning this flap upward care should be taken not to 
disturb the bed of the nail. In such an operation the finest in¬ 
struments are essential to success. In other cases the posterior 
part of the base of the phalanx is pulled off with the insertion 







362 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


of the tendon (Figs. 170 and 171). The “ drop ” of the tip of 
the finger is then less marked, but even when the finger is forcibly 
extended there will still be some deformity. Treatment by an¬ 
terior splint will give a somewhat thickened finger with good 



Fig. 170. —Radiograph of Traumatic Drop- 
Finger, Antero-posterior View. A portion 
of the terminal phalanx has been torn off 
with the posterior ligament. 



Fig. 171. —Radiograph of Trau¬ 
matic Drop-Fingi**, Lat¬ 
er ae View. Same patient as 
Fig. 170. 


function. In order to avoid deformity the loosened fragment 
of phalanx should be removed through a transverse incision. The 
periosteum should be saved if possible. This or the termination 
of the tendon should be stitched to the periosteum of the third 
phalanx or kept in place by pressure. An anterior splint should 
be worn for two weeks, and the patient should avoid complete 
flexion of the distal phalanx for some weeks more. 

In some cases the terminal phalanx of the finger is overex¬ 
tended and bent directly backward. The term “ baseball-finger ” 
is applied by some writers to this condition exclusively. It is the 
result of force suddenly applied to the tip of the finger and in most 
instances the permanent deformity is due to fracture of the ter¬ 
minal phalanx, and not simply to rupture of the anterior ligament. 






FRACTURES IN GENERAL 


363 


FRACTURES 

Fractures in General.— Diagnosis. —The diagnostic points 
of a fracture are well known to be: 

1. Pain and tenderness; 

2. Swelling; 

3. Ecchymosis; 

4. Deformity; 

5. Shortening; 

6. Results of examination with the X-ray; 

Y. False point of motion; 

8. Crepitus; 

9. Altered percussion note; 

10. Loss of function; 

11. Results of examination under general anesthesia. 

It is not to be expected that all signs of fracture will he pres¬ 
ent in any given case. Most of the signs may also he due to an 
injury to the soft parts, or possibly to a bruise of the hone itself; 
hut they have a relative value, and if certain of them exist to¬ 
gether, and the history of the injury is such as to presuppose a 
fracture, a sufficiently positive diagnosis can often he made, even 
though the pathognomonic signs of false motion and crepitus are 
not obtained and an X-ray examination is out of the question. 

Some further explanation of the relative value of these signs 

is desirable. . 

1. Pain is one of the least valuable signs, because it varies so 
in different cases. Its absence is no proof that a fracture does 
not exist. Tenderness, that is, pain produced by pressure or 
manipulation, is a far more valuable sign. In almost all fresh 
fractures pain is caused by pressure directly upon the line of 
fracture. If it is produced at the point of fracture by pressure 
made upon the injured bone at some other point, the sign has a 
greater significance. Take, for example, the case of the ulna, a 
bone which is often bruised. Pressure on the bruised spot natu¬ 
rally causes pain, whereas pressure on the ends of the bone, made 
by crowding together the olecranon and hand, will cause no pain. 
In a case of fracture such pressure will probably cause pain if 
the solution of continuity is complete. The same difference exists 
when attempts are made to bend a bone at the suspected point of 


364 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

fracture. In making these tests one must be careful not to make 
direct pressure upon the contused area. 

2. Swelling of the soft parts is such a common sign after all 
injuries that its diagnostic value is not of great importance. If 
the swelling is out of proportion to the apparent damage to the 
soft parts, or if it persists longer than such apparent damage 
would warrant, it has some value in establishing diagnosis of frac¬ 
ture. If a deep swelling persists after the edema of the skin has 
disappeared, its diagnostic value is greater, as it is then probably 
due to displaced hone or to callus. 

3. Ecchymosis has also a relative value in establishing the 
diagnosis of fracture. If it occurs within a few hours its diag¬ 
nostic value is slight. If the area of ecchymosis extends for three 
or four days, the value of the sign as indicating fracture is far 
greater. This fact indicates positively that some deep blood-ves¬ 
sels have been ruptured, and in case of suspected fracture such 
blood-vessels are usually in the hone itself. It is unusual to have 
a fracture without ecchymosis. 

4. Deformity, if one can he certain that it is true bony de¬ 
formity, is a positive sign of fracture or dislocation. The value 
of this sign rests, therefore, on the completeness of the examina¬ 
tion. If the patient is seen immediately after the accident, before 
the soft parts have had time to swell, even a slight bony deformity 
is readily made out. On the following day the deformity may he 
massed by the edema of the soft parts. In a week or more, after 
the swelling of the soft parts has more or less subsided, the bony 
deformity will again he more apparent, hut from this time for¬ 
ward it will be more or less obscured by the callus. 

Deformity due to fracture may he either angular or due to 
overlapping of the broken ends. Angular deformity is usually 
easier to make out, especially if the fracture is in a shaft of a long 
hone. As such fractures are rarely impacted, the angle can gen¬ 
erally he increased or diminished by manipulation (sign Ho. 7). 

The deformity due to overlapping, or to driving one fractured 
end into the other, is easily made out, provided there is no swell¬ 
ing of the soft parts and the hone lies near the surface. If the 
fracture of the shaft of the hone is transverse, or nearly so, over¬ 
lapping of the fractured ends will produce a marked deformity, 
and one that is easily recognized in spite of swelling. This often 


FRACTURES IN GENERAL 


365 


happens in fractures of the shaft of one of the phalanges and of 
the humerus. Most fractures are, however, oblique. This is par¬ 
ticularly true of fractures near the joints, and it is in just these 
cases that swelling is great and diagnosis is more difficult. Deter¬ 
mination of the long axis of the portion of the hone which can he 
felt, and its projection, in the mind, beyond the site of fracture, 
will help the examiner to decide whether deformity exists. 

Marked deformity is, of course, produced by dislocation, but 
a dislocation can in most cases be differentiated with certainty 
from a fracture by the other symptoms which exist, and which are 
given in the description of the special fractures and dislocations. 

5. Shortening is also a positive sign of fracture, if one is sure 
of his measurements. Many bones have such definite prominences 
that accurate measurements can be made and compared with those 
of the uninjured side. In other cases it is better to extend the 
measurements beyond the particular bone in question until well 
marked prominences are reached. Thus, in cases of suspected 
fracture of the femur, it is customary to measure from the ante¬ 
rior superior spine of the ileum to the internal maleolus. 

In some cases a previous injury or deformity of the affected or 
non-affected side will render comparative measurements worthless. 

If a false point of motion exists, measurements of the bone 
may show a difference when traction is made upon the limb so as to 
overcome any shortening which exists, and when the ends of the. 
bone are crowded together so as to increase the shoitenmg. Tins 
difference in many cases amounts to an inch or moie. Measuie 
ments are of value not only as proving the existence of fracture, 
but also to show that reduction has been effected. In all cases 
comparative measurements should be made upon the sound side. 

6. Examination with the X-ray has added more to our knowl¬ 
edge of fractures than all other methods combined. The technic 
of such examinations is fully explained in special books upon the 
subject, at least one of which should be in the hands of any one 
who takes up this method of examination. There are three gen¬ 
eral points which may well be borne in mind by every one who 
sends a patient to have an X-ray examination made. The first 
point is that a negative examination with the fluoroscope should, 
if possible, be confirmed by a radiograph, since fractures with 
slight displacement may not be apparent to the eje. The second 


366 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


point is the necessity of making radiographs in both the antero¬ 
posterior and lateral planes, in order to show how much deformity 
exists in both directions. The third point is this, that many cases 
of supposed sprain will he shown in a good radiograph to be cases 
of fracture. 

7. A false point of motion is positive proof of fracture. Its 
absence does not prove the absence of fracture, since the fracture 
may he incomplete (green stick fracture), or it may be impacted, 
or it may be so situated that one cannot grasp both portions of 
the fractured bone in such a manner as to demonstrate their lack 
of continuity. This is the case in many fractures about a joint. 
Sometimes the false point of motion can he demonstrated by the 
abnormal motion which one of the bones making up the joint has 
upon the other, even though the shorter fragment is quite inacces¬ 
sible. This is seen after fracture of the so-called anatomical neck 
of the humerus and fracture of the neck of the femur. 

In testing for a false point of motion the bones should he 
grasped firmly above and below the suspected plane of fracture. 
Gentle manipulation should then be made, calculated ( a ) to bend 
the affected bone in an anteroposterior direction, (b) to bend it 
laterally, (c) to slide one broken end on the other in an antero¬ 
posterior direction, ( d ) to slide it laterally, (c) to rotate one end 
upon the other, and (/) to increase and diminish any existing 
overlapping by alternately pushing up and then making traction 
upon the hone in the direction of its long axis. These general 
tests may he varied to meet the requirements in any particular 
case. They are especially applicable to fractures in the shaft 
of a long hone. Emphasis is laid on the firm grasp combined 
with gentle manipulation, for in this way the best results are 
obtained. 

Sometimes, if a small portion of the hone has been broken off, 
its mobility may he demonstrated by making pressure first on one 
end or side of the fragment and then upon the opposite one. In 
this manner it may he tilted hack and forth. 

If the fracture is near a joint the best result is sometimes 
obtained by grasping with one hand the main portion of the frac¬ 
tured bone, and with the other hand the hone or hones with which 
it articulates, thus allowing the small fractured portion to move 
with the hones beyond the joint. A good example of this is found 


FRACTURES IN GENERAL 


367 


in fracture of one malleolus, especially when combined with lacera¬ 
tion of the ligaments of the opposite side. 

8. Crepitus or grating between the broken surfaces of a bone 
is, of course, a positive proof of fracture when found. It should 
be tested for with gentleness, according to the directions given in 
the preceding paragraphs, under the heading u False Point of 
Motion.” Failure to obtain crepitus when a fracture exists may 
be due to impaction of the fragments, or to lack of mobility, or 
to the interposition of soft tissues or clotted blood, which allow 
the bones to move on each other without grating. 

A soft or false crepitus is often produced in a joint by an 
unnatural slipping of one bone upon the other. Thus, the shoul¬ 
der-joint in many persons habitually gives out a crepitus when 
manipulated, and any joint may do so following an injury. This 
source of possible error can usually be eliminated by a comparison 
with the corresponding joint of the other side. 

A blood clot in the vicinity of a suspected fracture will some¬ 
times give a soft crepitus when pressed upon. There is also a 
possibility of fibrinous crepitus produced by the slipping of a ten¬ 
don through an acutely inflamed tendon sheath (see p. 343). 

9. An altered percussion note was at one time heralded as a 
sure sign of fracture. A stethoscope is placed over one end of 
the bone while the other end is tapped. If the bone is intact the 
sound is transmitted clearly; if the bone is broken the sound is 
muffled. The difference is noted by comparing the results ob¬ 
tained on the two sides of the body. This test has a limited appli¬ 
cation. It is obvious that there must be no swelling of the soft 
parts over the points where the stethoscope is placed and where 
the bone is tapped, as otherwise a different sound will be pro¬ 
duced. Practise has shown that the sound is frequently undi¬ 
minished, even though a fracture exists, presumably because the 
fractured ends of the bone are in intimate contact with each other. 
If the ends are separated there is a distinct difference in the tone. 
For this reason some observers claim that this percussion-auscul¬ 
tation is a reliable sign of the existence of soft tissues between 
the fractured ends of a bone, and that if the ends cannot be so 
approximated that a clear tone will be produced non-union may 
be expected. Further testimony is needed upon this subject before 
accepting this statement as final. 


368 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

10. Loss of function is a valuable sign of fracture, though not 
an absolute one. The function of a bone is to remain rigid while 
allowing motion in its associated joints. In a sense, most of the 
symptoms mentioned above indicate a loss of function of the part, 
but the term “ loss of function/’ as ordinarily employed, means 
that the normal use of the portion of the body affected is impos¬ 
sible. For example, after fracture of the tibia the patient cannot 
bear his weight on the foot. After fracture of the humerus he 
cannot hold a ten pound weight at arm’s length, etc. It is worthy 
of note that loss of function is usually only partial; thus, after 
fracture of the fihula alone, the patient can walk upon his heel, 
but cannot bear his weight upon the ball of the foot. The special 
limitations of function which follow various fractures form an 
important part of the knowledge necessary for an accurate diag¬ 
nosis and treatment of the same. 

Loss of function frequently exists without a fracture. Pres¬ 
sure upon contused areas, tensions of damaged muscles and nerves, 
motion of inflamed joint surfaces, and so forth, may all cause 
pain, and thus interfere with the normal uses of the body. The 
exact limitations of function can often be better determined if 
the patient’s attention is directed away from the injured part. 
The administration of an anesthetic, hut not to full anesthesia, is 
frequently a valuable help in determining loss of function. 

11. General anesthesia is of great assistance in the diagnosis 
of fractures. The patient is thereby spared much pain, the sur¬ 
geon is put at his ease, the muscles are relaxed so that much less 
force is necessary in manipulation, and the existence of positive 
signs of fracture and the relation of the fractured ends to one 
another are made out with an accuracy which is quite impossible 
in most cases if no anesthetic is employed. Furthermore, anes¬ 
thesia is a great help toward the reduction of displacement, but it 
should be borne in mind that, with the return of consciousness, 
muscular contraction will again take place, and the fragments may 
again be drawn out of relation. 

Treatment. Successful treatment of any fracture accom¬ 
plishes three things: 

1. Reposition of the fragments; 

2. Immobility of the fragments; and 

3. Restoration of function. 


FRACTURES IN GENERAL 


369 


The patient should he anesthetized whenever for the purposes 
of diagnosis or reposition of the fragments the surgeon is obliged 
to use force or cause pain. A snap reposition, like a snap diag¬ 
nosis, may he correct, but is never justifiable. Before giving an 
anesthetic, and before reducing the fracture or bandaging the 
part, sensation and motion in the part of the limb beyond the 
break should always be tested. Otherwise a subsequently observed 
paralysis may be ascribed to the surgeon. 

1. The fragments are best replaced by manipulation while 

traction is exerted bv an assistant. 

«/ 

Impaction between the fragments should never be broken up 
if they are in correct line. It should always be broken up if the 
alinement of the fragments is so bad as to interfere with the 
proper use of the limb. Whether an impaction should be broken 
up when the alinement is bad, but the function is not seriously 
interfered with, depends upon the age and nutritive condition of 
the patient, the probability that a better alinement can be obtained, 
the possibility of non-union, etc. 

Measurements of the length of the injured bone as compared 
with those of the opposite side are valuable as showing the amount 
of shortening and also the success of reduction. Generally speak¬ 
ing, if the shortening is more than a half inch reduction is unsat¬ 
isfactory. The fragments have not been restored to their normal 
relations, or the muscles do not allow them to remain in proper 
relation. In the former case a better reduction should be brought 
about under an anesthetic. In the latter case extension should be 
employed. 

2. Immobility is secured by splints and extension. The best 
splints for most fractures are made of plaster of Paris bandages 
molded directly on the limb. When dry they may be trimmed, 
if necessary, and covered with canton flannel or some similar mate¬ 
rial (Figs. 174 and 175, p. 382). 

3. Restoration of function can be aided by massage, passive 
motion of neighboring joints, active motion, hot bathing, dry heat, 
and electricity. 

Massage may be employed with benefit on the day following a 
fracture, and every day afterward until there is complete restora¬ 
tion of function. For the first few days the limb should be rubbed 
lightly above and below the seat of fracture. Then one splint may 


370 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

be removed to permit gentle stroking of tlie injured portion. After 
two weeks both splints may be removed and more force employed 
in the rubbing. The splints are of course reapplied immediately 
after the treatment. By this means the disappearance of the swell¬ 
ing is hastened, the formation of adhesions is kept at a minimum, 
and the surgeon is given an accurate knowledge of the positions 
of the fragments at a time when a faulty position may be easily 
corrected. 

Passive motions of the neighboring joints, should be made 
every two or three days, beginning at the expiration of a 'week. 
The patient’s sensation is the best guide to the extent of the 
motions, but no motions should be made which will disturb the 
fragments. 

The amount of active motion allowed will depend upon the 
nature of the fracture. In general, active motion at the nearest 
joints should not be attempted until the union is sufficiently firm 
to allow the surgeon to handle the injured portion of the limb 
readily without fear of displacement. Active motions of more 
distant joints may be allowed somewhat sooner than this. 

Hot water applications, hot packs, and baking in a hot air 
apparatus are powerful stimulants to circulation, and are service¬ 
able in restoring mobility to stiffened joints after the bony union 
is firm. The mobility thus gained must be kept up by massage 
and active and passive motions, or the stiffness will be likely to 
recur. 

Mechanical vibration is a form of massage which is of very 
great service in the later treatment of fractures. 

Electricity is employed with benefit to keep up the tone of 
muscles grown flabby by some weeks of disuse, and also in cases 
in which the nerves have been injured at the time of fracture or 
afterward, by manipulation or by pressure caused by splints or 
bony fragments or callus. 

Separation of the Epiphysis.—There are two special forms of 
fracture occurring in children, viz., separation of the epiphysis 
and green stick fracture. An epiphyseal separation is virtually 
a transverse fracture. In order to avoid deformity, and to favor 
the proper growth of the bone such a fracture should be reduced 
most exactly. An anesthetic is desirable in many cases. When 
such reduction is accomplished union takes place very quickly, 


FRACTURES OF THE HUMERUS 


371 


there is absolutely no deformity nor shortening of the limb, and 
the restoration of function is perfect. 

Green Stick Fracture.—A green stick fracture is one in which 

O 

the bone is partly broken, partly bent, as when force is applied 
to a living sprout. It is not necessary in all cases to complete 
the fracture. The rule should be to correct the deformity so com¬ 
pletely that there is no tendency for it to recur when the force 
of the surgeon’s fingers is removed. Once corrected the deformity 
does not tend to recur. 

Fractures of the Humerus. —Fractures of the humerus are 
divided into those of the upper extremity, those of the shaft, and 
those of the lower extremity. Those of the upper extremity of 
the humerus are again divided into those of the anatomical and 
those of the surgical neck of the bone; while those of the lower 
extremity are often spoken of as fractures of the internal condyle, 
external condyle, T-shaped fractures, etc. The use of the X-ray 
in the diagnosis of fractures has shown that such classifications 
have only a general value, and that there is by no means a regular 
type of fracture of each of the kinds mentioned; but that, on the 
contrary, the plane of cleavage may run in almost any direction; 
it may be too irregular to be spoken of as a plane at all, and that 
often there is more than one break, so that the bone is separated 
more or less completely into three or more pieces. Hence the 
great importance of studying each case by itself. The use of 
the X-ray, both for diagnosis and as confirmatory of reduction of 
displaced fragments, is greatly to be advised, and should be in¬ 
sisted upon by the surgeon in all doubtful cases. 

In almost all cases the fracture is due to a fall. 

Fractures of the Upper End of the Humerus.—Fracture of the 

upper end of the humerus is not a difficult diagnosis to make 
out, provided the tuberosities are separated from the shaft of the 
bone. Then, if the arm is grasped at the elbow and rotated by 
the surgeon the tuberosities do not rotate with it, and a certain 
diagnosis of fracture can be made, even though crepitus is not 
elicited. This fracture has been spoken of as fracture of the 
surgical neck of the humerus, as distinguished from fracture 
of the anatomical neck. In the latter case, the tuberosities being 
attached to the shaft, rotate with it. The diagnosis is then more 

difficult. Even if crepitus is attained, it may be simply the 
26 



372 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


grating so often produced by rotation of the humerus, especially 
in people who have reached middle age and whose joints have 
suffered previous inflammation. If crepitus can be obtained by 
pushing the arm directly up and down, it is more significant of 
fracture than if it is produced simply by rotation. 

The other customary signs of fracture are well marked. 
Ecchymosis is greater if the fracture involves or passes below the 
tuberosities than it is if the fracture is through the anatomical 
neck. The effused blood, directed by gravity and fascial planes, 
is often most prominent at the elbow. 

There is about one-half inch shortening, if the fracture is 
between the points measured. Crowding- the elbow upward will 
sometimes increase the shortening, and will give pain at the frac¬ 
ture. 

Ealse point of motion is often demonstrable, and if the frac¬ 
ture is below both tuberosities, there is often an inward angulation 
of the shaft. 

If the fracture is impacted, the tuberosities will rotate with 
the shaft, even though the line of fracture is below them. In 
such a case the diagnosis must be made from the shortening, ten¬ 
derness, loss of function, ecchymosis, angular deviation of the 
shaft, if such exists, and the direct palpation of the bone at 
the fracture. It will be noticeably thickened as compared with 
the opposite side. 

Treatment. —In fracture of the anatomical neck of the 
humerus the arm should be supported and kept close to the scapula 
by plaster strapping or by a body bandage and a sling. After 
ten days or two Aveeks, gentle passive motions should be made to 
prevent the formation of firm adhesions in the joint. If the bone 
fails to unite, a painful or much impaired joint results, and an 
open operation is necessary, either to remove the head of the bone 
or to fasten it to the shaft by sutures or pegs. 

In fracture of the surgical neck the deformity may be cor¬ 
rected by the weight of the arm if the hand be kept in a sling; 
or additional extension may be obtained by a light weight, two to 
five pounds, hung at the elbow. A shoulder cap should be made 
from a plaster of Paris bandage applied in the form of a spica, 
including the shoulder and extending around the chest (Ho. 34, 
Chapter XXI). When dry, all of this bandage should be cut 


FRACTURES OF THE HUMERUS 


373 


away except an external slionlder cap. This and a short internal 
splint should be bandaged in place by a soft bandage, and the band 
placed in a sling. Massage and passive motion should be begun 
in two weeks or less to prevent if possible the adhesions which 

often form in and about the joint. 

Eracture of the Shaft of the Humerus.—Fracture of the shaft 

of the humerus is a common accident, and one which is easily 
diagnosticated by the false point of motion, which can always 
be made out. The direction of the displacement will vary accord¬ 
ing to the site of the fracture above or below the attachment of 
the deltoid and the origin of the brachialis anticus. 

Essential treatment consists in the application of coaptation 
splints to the arm, with extension at the elbow to overcome short¬ 
ening, and support of the hand in a sling. As soon as the tendency 
to deformity or displacement of the broken ends is overcome the 
extension may be omitted, and passive motions be made at the 
elbow and shoulder. The hand should be carried in a sling until 
firm union results. 

While fracture of the shaft of the humerus is easily and suc¬ 
cessfully treated in most cases, it is of all fractures of the body 
the one most likely to result in non-union. As reasons for this 
may be mentioned the fact that the bone is a single one of small 
size, and the further fact that the fracture is usually transverse. 
Thus muscular traction may cause overlapping. If non-union 
results the case should not at once be given up as hopeless, nor an 
immediate operation be advised. There should first be tried abso¬ 
lute rest in a correct position as obtained by a plaster of Paiis 
splint of the whole extremity and shoulder, applied under ether 
if necessary. If no stiffening of the break is evident aftei two 
or three weeks of this treatment, the ends of the fractured bone 
should be vigorously rubbed together twice a week, the arm be¬ 
ing kept at rest in the intervals. Sometimes it is of advantage 
to omit all dressing, except the coaptation splints, and to allow 
the patient to use the hand and forearm. This improves the cir¬ 
culation of the limb, and if judiciously carried out, need not 
increase displacement of the fractured bone. These and similar 
measures calculated to stimulate the ends of the bone, while pie 
venting an undue amount of motion, may result in a cure, e\en 
though union be delayed for six months or moie. Should thes.. 


374 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


measures fail, operation is indicated. The fractured ends of the 
bone should be freshened and shaped to each other and fixed firmly 
together by a drill passed obliquely through both, and left in posi¬ 
tion for two or three weeks. Or they may be sutured, preferably 
by materials which will become absorbed in two weeks. 

Non-union of the humerus affords a good field for bone¬ 
grafting, a more difficult operation than these but one which, in 
certain cases, gives beautiful results. Even though no bony union 
follow fracture of the humerus, the arm is far from useless. 

Another complication of fracture of the shaft is involvement 
of the musculospiral nerve, and paralysis of the extensor mus¬ 
cles of the hand and fingers. The nerve may be injured at the 
time the bone is broken, or it may be pressed upon later by a 
splint, or it may be involved in the forming callus. To avoid 
unpleasant accusations, the surgeon should always test the sensa¬ 
tion and circulation of a limb, a bone of which has been broken, 
both before and after the application of splints. If the func¬ 
tion of the musculospiral does not return with the help of bath¬ 
ing, massage, and electricity, the nerve should be exposed and 
freed. 

Fracture of the Lower End of the Humerus. —Fracture of the 
lower end of the humerus is very common, especially in child¬ 
hood. The exact line of fracture may extend transversely across 
the bone, or may separate either condyle, with or without the 
articular portion; or the injury may be a still more complex one. 
An exact diagnosis of injuries about the elbow-joint is often 
impossible. The use of the X-ray is of the greatest benefit under 
such circumstances, and the surgeon for his own protection, as 
well as for his own satisfaction and for the benefit of the patient, 
should insist that a radiograph be taken.- The use of an anes¬ 
thetic is also of the greatest assistance in clearing up the diagno¬ 
sis, especially in determining how much the normal motions have 
been interfered with by the injury. Deformity may at the same 
time be overcome, and the limb placed in a plaster of Paris splint. 
Whatever the injury, the limb is usually best treated with the 
forearm flexed at a right angle and held in a position midway 
between pronation and supination. Either the plaster of Paris 
or starch bandage should include the hand, or a sling should 
support the hand, and save the patient from the pain caused by 



FRACTURES OF THE HUMERUS 


375 


the constant stretching of the radial ligaments of the wrist. The 
arm should be inspected at least three times the first week and 
twice a w r eek for a month or longer. After the first week pas¬ 
sive motions (rotation of the hand and arm, flexion and extension 
of the forearm) should be begun. These motions, combined with 
light massage, should be slight at first, and grow more extensive 
as the union of the fragments progresses. 

Deformity following fracture of the lower end of the humerus 
is not uncommon, owing to the fact that the lower fragment has 
united at a vicious angle. Such deformity is most noticeable 
when the arm is fully extended, and the forearm and hand will 
then appear to be bent abnormally backward or to one side. If 
the deformity is not too great, and especially if the motions of the 
elbow are free and painless, operative interference should be 
advised against. 

Another common after-effect is limitation of flexion and ex¬ 
tension. Flexion is usually affected to a greater extent than 
extension. If motion in the joint is prevented by swelling merely, 
this may be overcome by use of the arm and massage. But in 
other cases there is a mechanical obstruction to flexion or exten¬ 
sion, which will not yield to such simple measures. Under such 
circumstances an anesthetic (preferably nitrous oxid) should be 
given, since if the motion is limited by adhesions, these may be 
broken up. In many instances the limitation of motion is due 
to the formation of callus and new bone at or near the line of 
fracture; so that the function of the joint, instead of increasing, 
may grow less as the weeks go by. This bony irregularity is due 
to imperfect reduction. If recognized early by an X-ray examina¬ 
tion it may be corrected by manipulation. At a later date, if the 
limitation of motion is still considerable, sufficient say to pre¬ 
vent the patient from putting the hand up to the head, and con¬ 
tinues in spite of a thorough course of treatment by massage, 
and active and passive motions, extending, over several weeks, and, 
if under an anesthetic the forearm cannot be flexed much beyond 
the point to which it can be flexed without the anesthetic, an 
operation is indicated. Possibly the bony outgrowth may be 
chiseled away, so that an increase of flexion is possible. If anky¬ 
losis seems inevitable, the surgeon must choose between fixing 
the* elbow at the most favorable angle, a little less than a right 


376 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


angle, or resecting the elbow-joint. The effect of this is to 
give a fibrous flail-like painless joint at the elbow, which enables 
the patient to do far more with the hand and arm than is pos¬ 
sible with a fixed joint, no matter at what angle. 

Fractures of the Ulna and Radius.—Fracture of the Ole¬ 
cranon Process of the Ulna. —Fracture of the olecranon is due to 



falls upon the elbow. The diagnosis is easily made, since the 
olecranon is movable upon the ulna, often with crepitus. The 
fragments may be separated in flexion of the forearm, so that 
the injury is best treated by placing the extended arm on a splint 




FRACTURES OF THE ULNA AND RADIUS 


377 


for ten days or two weeks, and then beginning possible motion 
to prevent adhesions in the elbow-joint. 

Fracture of Head of Radius.—Fracture of the head of the 
radius, or of its neck, is due to falls upon the hand (Figs. 172 



Fig. 173.— Same Subject as Fig. 172. Radiograph giving lateral view of fractured 

radius. 


and 173). The rarity of this fracture is a matter for surprise. 
Doubtless it has often been overlooked, and the diagnosis made 
of sprain of the elbow-joint or fracture of the external condyle 
of the humerus. 

The symptoms of fracture of the head of the radius are the 
general ones of fracture everywhere. Pain is also produced by 
crowding upward the palm of the overextended hand j pronation 
and supination are also extremely painful, and may be impossi¬ 
ble. This fact, together with the fact that the maximum swell¬ 
ing and tenderness is below the plane of the elbow-joint, and the 
further fact that pressure upon the two condyles does not elicit 
pain, will serve to differentiate an uncomplicated fracture of 
the head of the radius from fracture of the external condyle. 
An X-ray examination is often necessary to establish the diag¬ 


nosis. 








378 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


Treatment. —Deformity should be overcome if possible, and 
the forearm immobilized at an angle of ninety degrees, midway 
between pronation and supination, for two weeks. Then passive 
motions, both flexion and extension and rotation (very gentle), 
should be commenced and gradually increased, the arm being 
kept in a sling for at least two weeks longer. In some cases per¬ 
manent limitation of motion, especially of pronation and supina¬ 
tion, makes it necessary to remove some of the displaced bone. 

Fracture of the Shaft of the Ulna or Radius. —Fractures of the 
ulna or radius, or of both of these bones occurring in the shaft, 
are usually made out without difficulty. The ulna lies so close 
to the skin that a break in it can be easily determined by direct 
palpation, while the attachment of the hand to the radius helps 
in the diagnosis of a fracture of this bone, in cases in which the 
ulna is not broken. The hand and lower fragment of the radius 
can be moved independently of the ulna to a short distance, and 
hence a false point of motion in the radius can be made out almost 
as easily as it can be in the humerus or femur. When both 
bones are broken the diagnosis is extremely simple in adults. In 
young children it sometimes happens that one or both bones are 
partially broken as the branch of a living tree breaks on one side 
and bends, hence the term “ green stick ” fracture (see p. 371). 

Treatment. —If a green stick fracture exists, in order to get 
the bone to remain in a correct position, it is often necessary to 
overcorrect the deformity. In so doing, the remaining portion 
of bone may be broken through. This in itself is not a serious 
accident, and is preferable to allowing the deformity to remain 
only partially reduced. 

In other respects fractures in the middle of the forearm are 
easily treated. When the deformity has been overcome by manipu¬ 
lation, the hand should be placed midway between pronation and 
supination, and the bone should be kept quiet by means of light 
anterior and posterior splints, or a light plaster of Paris bandage. 
If the plaster is fresh and is applied before it has time to set there 
is no need for such a bandage to be more than an eighth or a 
twelfth of an inch in thickness. The heavy cumbrous bandages 
which are sometimes applied are by their very weight not only 
uncomfortable, but injurious to the patient. 

The position of the hand ha3 been a matter of considerable 



FRACTURES OF THE ULNA AND RADIUS 


379 


dispute. Some writers liave said that the hand should he fully 
supinated in order to prevent the callus from uniting the radius 
and ulna. They have stated that the hones were most widely 
separated in extreme supination. Others have denied this, claim¬ 
ing that the separation is greatest in a position between pronation 
and supination. An examination of any cadaver, or of the fore¬ 
arm in life by means of the X-ray, will show that the distance 
between the bones is almost the same whether the hand he held 
two-thirds supinated or he fully supinated. Since this is the case, 
the comfort of the patient demands that the hand he placed with 
the thumb directly upward, the elbow being flexed at a right angle. 
This is the natural position of the forearm, and to hold the hand 
for a long time fully supinated when the forearm is flexed at a 
right angle is a tiresome procedure in health, and well-nigh impos¬ 
sible if the arm is broken. 

In fracture of the radius there is a chance of the interposi¬ 
tion of muscle or fibrous tissue between the broken ends, while 
the numerous strong muscles cause overlapping if both hones are 
broken. The possibility of non-union should always be borne in 
mind if crepitus is not elicited when the fracture is fresh, or if 
there is still motion at the line of fracture in a month or six 
weeks. But the surgeon should not he too impatient nor turn 
too quickly to an open operation, the results of which are by no 
means invariably good. Moreover, it sometimes happens that 
union which has been delayed for six or eight weeks will never¬ 
theless take place spontaneously under the more favorable condi¬ 
tions of massage, and an occasional rubbing together of the ends 
of the bone. 

If both radius and ulna are broken, and non-union results, 
pronation and supination of the hand are impossible. If a single 
bone is broken, pronation and supination is at first impossible, but 
later is possible to a certain extent, even though only a fibrous 
union exist between the fractured ends. 

Pronation and supination are also limited by angular de¬ 
formity of one or both bones, and are absolutely prevented by a 
bony union of radius to ulna. A complete crossed union of radius 
and ulna, i. e., the union of the lower fragment of the ulna with 
the upper fragment of the radius, and vice versa , probably never 
occurs, but any bony fusion of these bones is equally destructive 


380 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

of the function of rotation of the hand, and is an absolute indica¬ 
tion for operation. To prevent such fusion, some authors advise 
the use of splints, the center of each of which is elevated in a 
ridge, intended to press between the radius and ulna, so as to 
keep the hones apart. This device is theoretical rather than prac¬ 
tical. 

Fracture of the Lower End of the Radius ( Colies’s Fracture ).— 
Fracture just above the wrist-joint, always involving the radius 
and sometimes the tip of the ulna, and known as Colies’s fracture, 
after the surgeon who accurately described it, is one of the com¬ 
monest fractures which the surgeon is called upon to treat. The 
study of radiographs of this injury is most instructive. Such 
pictures show that the line of fracture may extend in almost any 
direction. ' The lower end of the radius may he broken into sev¬ 
eral pieces, or there may he a single break either involving the 
joint or extending across the hone in a more or less oblique direc¬ 
tion wholly above the joint. The radiographs also show that the 
lower end of the ulna is involved in about a third of the cases, 
a fact which is rarely made out clinically, and which has little 
hearing on the treatment. 

In Colles’s fracture the lower end of the radius may he dis¬ 
placed in any direction. The common displacement is upward 
and backward. This, with the fact that the plane of the articular 
surface is often bent a little backward, causes what is known as a 
silver fork deformity, the hand assuming something of the curves 
of an ordinary table fork. The other signs of this fracture are 
a displacement upward of the styloid process of the radius when 
compared with the styloid process of the ulna, tenderness, ecchy- 
mosis, and possibly abnormal motion and crepitus. 

Treatment.— Owing to the breadth of bone and its spongy 
character, and to the fact that the injury is received usu¬ 
ally by a fall upon the hand, the lower fragment of the radius 
is often impacted in the shaft. False motion and crepitus will 
then be absent, but an abnormal thickening and irregularity of 
the bone may mark the plane of fracture. If no deformity exists, 
there is no need of breaking up this impaction. The injury is 
much simplified thereby, and in two or three weeks the patient 
will begin to have free use of his hand. Such a fortunate condi¬ 
tion is rare. The impacted fragment is almost always set into 



FRACTURES OF THE RADIUS 


381 


the shaft at a false angle, hence the necessity for breaking up the 
impaction and restoring the normal relation of the parts. This 
can best be done under the influence of a general anesthetic, 
nitrous oxid being well suited to the purpose. It is extremely 
important that any existing deformity should be thoroughly re¬ 
duced. Under no circumstances should the surgeon trust to pres¬ 
sure obtained by splints to reduce the deformity. The strength 
of the structures forming the wrist-joint and the nearness of the 
plane of fracture to the joint itself make it almost impossible 
to overcome deformity by pressure, and a firm pressure easily 
causes necrosis of the skin overlying the back of the wrist. If 
impaction has been broken up and the deformity has been thor¬ 
oughly reduced, there will be little tendency to recurrence except 
through muscular contractions. To avoid this the hand should 
be kept at rest by anterior and posterior plaster splints, extend¬ 
ing at least to the metacarpophalangeal joints. In difficult cases 
these should be applied while the patient is thoroughly anes¬ 
thetized and muscular contraction eliminated. 

If there is any doubt as to the diagnosis and perfect reduc¬ 
tion cannot be obtained and kept up, a good X-ray picture of the 
injury in the anteroposterior and lateral planes should be insisted 
upon. If the patient refuses this aid to diagnosis and treatment, 
there will be little ground upon which to rest a suit for malprac¬ 
tice in case the function of the hand is not fully restored. 

A great many different forms of splints have been advocated 
for this injury. Good results have been obtained with all of 
them, and indeed in many cases with no splint whatever, the hand 
being merely carried in a sling with a broad strap of rubber plas¬ 
ter about the wrist to support the broken bone. Others have 
advocated carrying the forearm or hand in a sling, the edge of 
which reaches only to the line of fracture, and thus permits grav¬ 
ity to prevent the recurrence of the deformity. Such an appa¬ 
ratus is needlessly simple and places too great responsibility upon 
even an intelligent patient. The advantages claimed for it are 
the avoidance of stiffness in the wrist-joint and a hastening of 
the time of repair by means of massage and passive motion. These 
advantages are very great, especially in persons past middle age, 
but they can be readily obtained by the frequent removal of well 
fitting anterior and posterior splints, while the splints protect 


382 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


the patient against possible accident and are far more comfortable 
than the sling alone. They are made as follows: 

A two or three inch crinoline gypsum bandage should be wet 
and drawn back and forth on a board or marble slab for a dis¬ 
tance of fifteen inches until twelve or fifteen thicknesses are 
made to overlie each other. They are thoroughly rubbed together. 
A second bandage is used to make a second strap splint. The 
fracture is reduced, and the hand of the patient put in whatever 
position of flexion, extension, abduction, or adduction best keeps 
the reduced radial fragment in correct position. The skin is 
anointed, and the moist plaster strap splints are then applied and 
approximated with a gauze bandage (Figs. 174 and 175). The 
hand and forearm are held for ten or fifteen minutes till the 
plaster has partially set. In this manner two light rigid splints are 
obtained which are accurately molded to the part, and which can 
be applied and removed at pleasure, and which fit far better than 
any wooden or metal splints can possibly do. In three days the 
splints should be removed for light massage, and reapplied. This 
treatment should be repeated every two or three days until three 
weeks have passed. After the first week gentle passive motion 



Fig. 174. Molded Gypsum Splints for Fracture of the Lower End of the 
Radius. Photographed after removal from the limb. 

may be made at the wrist, and the fingers flexed and extended 
by passive motions several times. If the deformity caused by the 
fracture has been fully reduced at the start, an arm treated in 
the manner described will be pretty nearly well in three weeks. 
There will be no pain and very little tenderness and swelling of 





383 


FRACTURES OF THE RADIUS 

the wrist, and the patient may be allowed to go without a splint 
and to begin active motions of his hand while continuing daily 
bathing and massage, and resting the forearm and hand in a sling 
when he is not using it. Cases which give trouble are those in 



Fig. 175.— Same Splints Applied. This position of the hand is desirable in many 

cases, to prevent recurrence of deformity. 

which the deformity is not thoroughly reduced soon after the 
accident. 

Cases of Old Colies’s Fracture. —The surgeon is often called 
upon to treat cases of Colies’s fracture in which the injury oc¬ 
curred some weeks or possibly months previous. Under such cir¬ 
cumstances the first question to be answered is the desirability 
of an attempt at reduction of any existing deformity. The 
patient will complain either of pain or of limitation of motion 
or of deformity, possibly all three. It is hard to say in just how 
long a time the union between the fragments w r ill become so firm 
that it will not be possible to separate them without a cutting 
operation. This will depend to a considerable degree upon the 
amount of impaction produced by the injury. In doubtful cases 
it is better to give the patient an anesthetic and to make an attempt 
to reduce existing deformity, even if it does not succeed. It is 
a satisfaction to the patient to know that a fair attempt has been 
made to reduce the deformity without an operation, and, moic- 
over, while under an anesthetic, adhesions between the various 
bones of the wrist may be broken up, and thus a greater amount 
of movement be obtained. In considering the question of an open 
operation, the accessibility of the radius and the probability of 






384 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


a reduction of the deformity are the favoring conditions, while 
the sear and the risks incident to operations upon hones, espe- 



Fig. 176.—Oi.d Fracture of Radius (Colles’s) with Marked Deformity, but 

Good Use of Hand. 


cially in the vicinity of a joint, are to be considered as against 
operation. 

The extreme deformity of an old unreduced fracture of the 
radius is shown in Figure 176. Yet this patient had good use 
of the hand. 

Fracture of the Carpus. —Fracture of one or more carpal 
hones is not a very common accident. It has to he differentiated 
from sprain. In a recent state this diagnosis cannot usually be 
made without the help of the X-ray. Later the marked limitation 
of motion, pain, and abnormal thickness of some portion of the 
wrist may suggest the true diagnosis. The scaphoid and semi¬ 
lunar hones are most often broken. 

The treatment is the same as that of a severe sprain. If a 
portion of a hone is so displaced as to interfere with motion, it 
should he removed. 

Fracture of a Metacarpal. —Fracture of one or more of 
the metacarpals is a very common injury. It results almost always 
from blows with the fist, the force coming against the knuckle— 
that is, against the head of the metacarpal. The line of fracture 






FRACTURE OF A PHALANX 


385 


is usually just altove the head of the bone, although it may he 
higher up. Ihere is almost invariably an anterior displacement 
of the distal fragment, thus causing a depression of the knuckle 
at the back of the hand. This looks at first glance like a dislo¬ 
cation of the phalanx until one considers that the knuckles are 
formed entirely by the metacarpals, if the fingers are fiexecl. 

If the injury has been recently received the diagnosis is easy, 
characteristic signs of pain, false point of motion, and crepitus 
being present. 

Lhe deformity is best reduced in most cases by flexing all 
the fingers over a ball of yarn or a gauze bandage placed in the 
hollow of the palm (Tig. ITT). The fingers should be strapped 
or bandaged in this position, and the dressing should be removed 
for bathing and massage two or three times a week. Union takes 



Fig. 177.— Fracture of Second Right Metacarpal. Deformity corrected by 
flexing the hand over a bandage held in the palm, with adhesive plaster strap¬ 
ping. 


place in these small bones very rapidly, and in young subjects 
two weeks is generally sufficient to produce a callus strong enough 
to prevent displacement. The bandage may then be omitted, and 
the patient simply cautioned against severe use of the hand for 
two or three weeks more. 

Fracture of a Phalanx. —In fracture of the first phalanx 
it is sometimes difficult to prevent recurrence of the deformity, 





386 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

owing to the constant pull of the anterior and posterior tendons, 
and the further fact that the web between the fingers prevents the 
application of a circular bandage. This, of course, does not apply 
to the thumb. It is the fifth finger in which the first phalanx is 
most often broken, on account of its small size and exposed position. 
It should be treated on a splint, preferably of tin, curved to fit 
three sides of the finger and hand. (Cf. Fig. 211, p. 426.) The 
deformity may be overcome by allowing the splint to extend be¬ 
yond the end of the finger, and by making extension by means 
of longitudinal strips of plaster fastened to the finger and reach¬ 
ing out beyond it to the end of the splint. Counterextension to 
hold the splint in place is obtained by similar adhesive straps 
about the wrist. 

Fracture of the second or third phalanx is easily treated. The 
pull upon the distal fragment is slight, and the deformity may be 
kept down by winding rubber plaster around the finger while 
extension is being made by an assistant. 

COMPOUND FRACTURES 

Compound fractures of the upper extremity should be treated 
from the very first aseptically, if possible. If the materials for 
a thorough cleansing of the wound are not at hand, a compress 
and bandage should he applied and one or two splints to keep 
the parts quiet until preparations can be made for a proper surgi¬ 
cal dressing. When the wound has been cleansed and drained 
and the deformity reduced, the treatment of the fracture does not 
differ materially from that of a simple fracture, provided that 
no suppuration ensues. The splints should be so arranged that 
they may be easily removed to permit dressing of the wound, or 
a window may be cut for this purpose. If the wound heals asep¬ 
tically, a longer time is required for bony union than is the case 
with simple fractures. Hence massage and passive motion cannot 
be begun usually until the third week. 

Suppuration occurring in a compound fracture will show itself 
locally by increased edema and tenderness near the -wound and 
a discharge of pus; or if the discharge is interfered with, by 
extension of the pain up the arm, swelling and tenderness of the 
regional lymph-glands above the elbow or in the axilla, and by the 
general symptoms of fever, headache, and malaise. These gen- 


CRUSHED FINGERS 


387 


era] symptoms arc naturally more noticeable in cases of compound, 
fracture of the larger bones, but they also exist in fracture of 
the hand and lingers with infection. The local signs are usually 
sufficient to show the surgeon whether repair is progressing favor- 
ably, but it is well to note the general symptoms even in these 
minor forms of fracture. 

Crushed Fingers. The typical case of compound fracture 
in Avliich ambulant treatment is demanded is a crush or cut of one 
or more fingers (Fig. 178). The treatment to be followed in such 



Fig. 178. —Compound Fracture of the Second Phalanx of Forefinger, 

A simple case. 

a case is: Cleansing of the shin with soap and hot water, turpen¬ 
tine, and either alcohol or ether; cleansing of the wound with sa¬ 
line irrigation and sponging; control of hemorrhage by pressure or 
ligature; inspection of the wound; removal of any foreign sub¬ 
stance and of detached bits of bone; adjustment of the fractured 
bone, and suture with chromic gut if the fragments cannot be kept 
in place by splints. Whether the wound is sutured or drained will 
depend upon circumstances. The circulation of the hand is so good 
that compound fractures often heal without suppuration; but as 





388 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


rubber tissue drains do not cause pain or irritate, their use is to be 
recommended in this class of wounds. They should be removed 
in two days, and not reinserted if there are no signs of infection. 
The skin sutures should be of fine plain catgut or of very fine silk. 
They should not be placed too close together, since there is con¬ 
siderable oozing of blood and serum for a day or two. The hand 
and fingers should be dressed with dry sterile gauze or with gauze 
moistened with some mild antiseptic, such as borolyptol, 1: 10, 
or creolin, 1: 200, and placed on a palmar splint. Individual 
splints to the fingers are not usually needed. A moist dressing 
favors the escape of secretions from the wound and adds greatly 
to the comfort of the patient. It should not be covered by oil-silk 
or anything which prevents evaporation, but should be wet sev- 

eral times a day with 
sterile water. . Never 
use carbolic acid for 
a continuous wet 
dressing. 

If the fingers are 
badly crushed or torn, 
nice judgment is often 
needed to get the very 
best result for the pa¬ 
tient. The temptation 
is great to amputate 
and stitch up the 
wounds completely. 
The neatness of a 
stump covered by well 
shaped flaps appeals to 
the surgeon, but not to 
the patient, whose at¬ 
tention is wholly fixed 

on the lost member. 

Fig. 179. — Injuries to Fingers from Contact The extra time re- 

with a Buzz-saw. Compound fracture, com- . £ 

pound dislocations, and traumatic amputation. CJUired for Complete 

cure is not considered 
bv most patients, if a longer finger is thereby secured. It is 
true that some laborers find a stiff finger, either flexed or ex- 





AMPUTATION OF A FINGER 


389 


tended, so much in the way that they ask to have it removed. 
The fin ger in such cases is generally the middle or ring finger, 
in which there is ankylosis of the first phalangeal joint and loss 
of the long flexor tendon. Ho one ever asks to have his thumb 
shortened for ankylosis. The fact, therefore, that a useless finger 
is sometimes voluntarily sacrificed has a very limited application 
to the treatment of traumatisms of the fingers. 



It is far better to pursue a conservative course, and never to 
sacrifice a flap of skin, no matter how slender its attachments, 
which can be used to cover a bone, and never to remove a phalanx 
which can be covered or nearly covered by normal skin. If only 
the base of a phalanx is left, it is better to remove it in order to 
avoid tenderness in the stump. 

There are many recorded instances of the reattachment of a 
finger or part of a finger which was almost severed from the hand 
by a traumatism. Such a case is shown in Figure 179. A buzz- 
saw wounded the sec¬ 
ond digit, disjointed 
the terminal phalanx 
of the third, dividing 
most of the soft parts, 
amputated the fourth, 
and disjointed the ter¬ 
minal phalanx of the 
fifth, while the soft 
parts of this finger 
were stripped from the 
' middle phalanx and di¬ 
vided. by spiral cuts 
which almost encircled 
the finger. Measured 
at right angles to the 
cuts, the undivided 
pedicle was about one- 
third of an inch wide. 

The wounds were 
stitched loosely and the 
hand kept upon a splint 
and dressed daily with 


Fig. 180. —Amputation through the Metacar¬ 
pophalangeal Joint. The photograph taken 
some years later, shows the permanent wide gap 
between the remaining fingers. 





390 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 



Fig. 181. — Amputation of the 
Fourth Ricsit Digit with the 
Head of the Metacarpal Bone. 


to cover the end of the bone, 
a racket shaped flap, prefer¬ 
ably from the palmar sur¬ 
face, is best. But, whatever 
the end of the stump at first, 
it invariably becomes smooth 
and rounded from constant 
use. The chief point, there¬ 
fore, is to have the flaps long 
enough so that the skin may 
move easily over the bone. 
Tendons and nerves should 
be cut off short. Horsehair 
is an excellent suture mate¬ 
rial for the skin. A few 


moist gauze. The pho¬ 
tograph was made the 
day after injury. Af¬ 
ter four weeks’ con¬ 
servative treatment, 
the only loss was the 
terminal phalanx of 
the third digit and a 
small portion of the 
skin of the fifth. 

AMPUTATION OF A 
FINGER 

In amputating a 
finger, if there is plen¬ 
ty of skin with which 










Fig. 182.—Same Subject as Fig. 181, Pos¬ 
terior View. 









AMPUTATION OF A FINGER 


391 



hairs twisted together, 
and then doubled and 
allowed to twist on 
themselves, make an 
excellent drain. This 
should he passed from 
side to side of the fin¬ 
ger, between the skin 
flaps and the end of 
the hone, to permit the 
escape of serum and 
blood. If suppuration 
is feared, a wet dress¬ 
ing is preferable. A 
small amount of sup¬ 
puration can usually 
be overcome by irriga- 


Fig. 184. —Posterior View of Same Subject as 

Fig. 183. 


Fig. 183. —Amputation of 
Two Central Fingers 
with their Metacar- 
pals. The photograph 
taken many years later 
shows the approximation 
of the remaining fingers, 
as well as the great de¬ 
velopment of the little 
finger. 

tion through the drain 
openings with peroxid 
of hydrogen and water, 
1: 6, without entire 
separation of the flaps. 

If amputation is to 
be performed as high 
up as the metacarpo¬ 
phalangeal joint, the 
surgeon must decide 
whether or not he will 
remove some portion 







392 DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


of the metacarpal bone. The strongest hand is gained by leaving 
it intact; so, if appearance is not to be considered, the decision 
shonld be to leave the whole metacarpal (Tig. 180). 

The deformity caused by the loss of the finger is, however, 
less cons 2 )icuous if the head of the metacarpal is removed (Tigs. 
181 and 182). While this is true for a single metacarpal in the 
center of the hand, it is an open question whether the heads of 
the third and fourth metacarpals should be removed for esthetic 
considerations, since a depression thus caused would be very con¬ 
spicuous, as, indeed, is the deformity no matter what the treatment. 

Another plan is the removal with the phalanx of the greater 
portion of the metacarpal, or even the whole bone. This is prob¬ 
ably the best method to pursue if the fifth, or fourth and fifth, 
fingers are lost, since in this manner the ulnar side of the hand 
can be made more smooth. The result of the application of this 
principle to the loss of the two central fingers is shown in Tigures 
183 and 184, taken many years after the operation. This was 
the hand of a hard working woman, as may be inferred from the 
strong development of the little finger. 


CHAPTER XV 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 

EFFECTS OF HEAT AND COLD 

Burns. —T he hands and arms are especially exposed to burns 
by steam, boiling water, flame, electricity, and the rays of the 
sun. The treatment is such as indicated on page 26. If the 
burned surface overlies a joint it is desirable to keep the limb in 
such a position that the motion of such joint shall not be inter¬ 
fered with by contraction of the resulting scar. Hence a single 
splint is often of great value in the treatment of burns, especially 
in children. If the burn be a deep one, and situated over a joint, 
skin-grafts should be applied in order to hasten the healing and 
prevent contraction of the scar. The grafts should be large and 
should comprise a considerable part of the thickness of the skin. 
They should not be applied until granulation is well established. 
For the technique see Chapter XXIII. 

Mangle Injury. —An injury peculiar to cities is produced 
by a laundry machine called a steam mangle, which has two large 
steam heated rollers through which clothing is passed in order to 
dry and smooth it. If the girl who feeds the machine has the 
misfortune to press her fingers between the rollers, the hand will 
be drawn forward and crushed and burned at the same time. As 
a result of this accident the fingers or the hand, or even the hand 
and a part of the forearm, will be ironed out flat and at the same 
time severely burned. The disfiguration is, of course, very great, 
but the rule holds good, none the less, to sacrifice no portion of 
the hand or finger in which the vitality is not absolutely destroyed. 
Skin-grafts may be used to take the place of skin which has been 
burned or torn away. Unfortunately, function is destroyed by 
this accident to a considerably greater distance than vitality, so 

that, even though the fingers or a considerable part of them be 

393 


394 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


preserved, the hand may he stiff and nearly useless. But even 
such a deformed hand is far better than an artificial substitute. 

Frost-bite. —Exposure of the hands to cold not severe enough 
to actually freeze the tissues may produce a condition marked by 
congestion and edema and analogous to chilblains of the feet. 
There will be symptoms of numbness, alternating with burning 
pain. Those who are exposed to cold should protect their hands 
by heavy leathern mittens, and should stimulate the circulation in 
the fingers by dipping the hands alternately into hot and cold 
water. Similar treatment should be employed daily in the case of 
hands already chilled, and following this the skin should be well 
rubbed Avith a mildly stimulating ointment, such as ichthyol. 

In the usual frost-bite of the fingers the action of the cold has 
been sufficient to shut off all circulation until some of the tissues 
ha\ r e died. When the hands are thawed out slowly, by rubbing 
Avith snoAv or rubbing in cold Avater, it Avill be seen that no blood 
circulates in parts of the fingers. Such parts remain cold and 
dark when the rest of the hand becomes warm. The color passes, 
in a day or so, from a dark red to reddish black or greenish black, 
and it is evident that dry gangrene exists; or, if there is plenty 
of moisture, blisters may form under the skin. 

Treatment. —In no part of the body is it more important to 
preserve as much of the tissue as possible. Hence, from the be¬ 
ginning, treatment should be directed toAvard that end. After the 
hands have been sloAvly brought to a normal temperature they 
should be kept warm and dry by wrapping them in cotton, so as 
to favor the efforts of the circulation to keep up the vitality. This 
is perhaps best accomplished by an ointment spread upon gauze, 
or applied directly to the finger and coA r ercd Avith gauze, outside 
of Avhich a thick layer of non-absorbent cotton should be placed 
and bandaged without much pressure. Such an ointment often 
contains tannic acid or other astringent for the purpose of keep¬ 
ing down the edema in the tissue which has been injured but not 
destroyed. 

Immediate amputation is strictly contraindicated. It often 
happens that the apparent gangrene is merely superficial and that 
a finger may live and remain useful an inch or more beyond the 
line of demarcation of the skin. EA^en if such a happy result does 
not folloAV delay, nothing is lost by conservative treatment, and 



GANGRENE FROM CARBOLIC ACID AND OTHER CAUSES 395 


the patient is more easily reconciled to the removal of a portion 
of a fin ger after he sees that all attempts to preserve it have failed. 
Compare what is said upon this in the following paragraphs on 
carbolic gangrene. 

Gangrene from Carbolic Acid and Other External 
Causes. —Gangrene of the finger is still frequently caused by 
the injudicious use of carbolic acid, in spite of all that has been 
written on this subject. Sometimes the responsibility for this 
rests with the patient, sometimes he acts at the suggestion of a 
friend, sometimes a druggist is at fault, and sometimes, sad to 
tell, a doctor applies the deadly lotion. 

If carbolic acid is spilled upon the skin accidentally, its caus¬ 
tic action may be prevented by promptly bathing the part with 



Fig. 185. — Partial Gangrene of Finger due to Carbolic Acid. There was loss 
of the true skin over a part of the circumference of the finger only. No opera¬ 
tion was performed. Recovery with perfect function of joints and tendons, but 
with a permanent scar. Notice the swelling of the living tissue adjoining the 
gangrene. 


alcohol; hut in most of the cases in which gangrene is produced 
a solution of the acid is employed, and the destruction of the skin, 
taking place slowly and often painlessly, is not recognized until 
hours have elapsed. It is then too late for relief to he obtained by 
bathing with alcohol. 

Gangrene has frequently been produced by the application of 
a five per cent solution of carbolic acid in water, and in some in¬ 
stances by the use of a watery solution of only one per cent. Ex¬ 
periments show that a similar gangrene may follow the application 




396 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


of five per cent solutions of caustic potash, acetic acid, or mineral 
acids. 

Carbolic gangrene is dry and usually painless. The affected 
part is at first dark gray or brown, and as the tissues dry and 

shrivel they grow 
darker, so that they 
become almost black 
(Fig. 185 and Fig. 

186) . In a few days 
a line of demarcation 
is established between 
the dead and living 
parts, and there is 
some swelling of the 
latter, due to absorp¬ 
tion of septic mate¬ 
rial along the line of 
separation. In a few 
cases this absorption 
may lead to a well 
marked cellulitis 
with the formation 
of pus pockets (Fig. 

187) . 

The termination 
of the gangrene varies 
according to its ex¬ 
tent. Thus there mav 

V 

be loss of the super¬ 
ficial skin only, with¬ 
out permanent scars, 
or a part of the cori- 
um may he destroyed, or the deeper tissues, including the 
bones. The line of demarcation becomes established, granula¬ 
tions spring from the proximal side of the line, and attempt 
to close the wound. The bones and tendons will resist disinte¬ 
gration longer than the other tissues, but they, too, must yield 
in time, so that in favorable cases a spontaneous cure may 
take place. 



Fig. 186.—Carbolic Gangrene of Distal Half 
of Finger, Photographed One Week After 
the Application. When first seen the gan¬ 
grene extended beyond the web of the finger. 
It was superficial over the proximal phalanx, and 
the sloughing of the gangrenous epidermis ex¬ 
posed the living skin beneath, as can be seen in 
the photograph. Two weeks’ delay in perform¬ 
ing the amputation enabled the surgeon to save 
the proximal phalanx, and to cover it with good 
flaps. 





GANGRENE FROM CARBOLIC ACID AND OTHER CAUSES 397 


Treatment. —The treatment of carbolic gangrene is at first 
conservative. As in frost-bite, and other forms of gangrene from 
external cause, the parts should be kept warm and dry, and ampu¬ 
tation should he postponed until the line of demarcation through 
the true skin is established. Not until then is the surgeon able 
to decide positively how much of the finger can be preserved with 
benefit. This delay of ten days or two weeks also increases the 
vitality in the partially damaged skin, so that it can be used suc- 



Fig. 187.—Carbolic Gangrene of the Thumb, Complicated with Cellulitis 
of the Thumb and Hand. Sero-pus escaped through the incisions made to 
relieve tension. 


cessfully for a flap after two weeks, when the same flap would 
certainly not have been viable if amputation had been peifoimed 

as soon as the gangrene was noticed. 

Sometimes the gangrene is complicated with cellulitis. On this 





398 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


account, while waiting for a distinct line of demarcation, the 
surgeon should inspect the affected finger daily. If tension due 

to swelling interferes 
with the circulation, 
or if abscesses form, 
incisions should he 
made, so that the gan¬ 
grene may not extend 
(Fig. 187). 

For the treatment 
of cellulitis see page 
402. 


Fig. 188. — Same Subject as Fig. 187. Recovery 
with no loss of bone, but the skin was so tightly 
stretched over the distal phalanx that its tip 
was later resected. 


Cellulitis in the 
hand does not often 
lead to gangrene, even 
when it develops in 
diabetics or individ¬ 
uals otherwise enfee¬ 
bled. Yet it may do 
so. Hence, the neces¬ 
sity for free incisions 
whenever swelling 
within the restricting 
skin of the finger 
threatens to cut off 
the circulation from 



the damaged part. Figure 192, on page 403, shows a finger 
which was lost by neglect of this precaution. Such gangrene 
is moist. 

Whenever a cellulitis which is well drained does not progress 
satisfactorily, and gangrene is threatened, the urine should be 
examined for sugar and albumin. If either is present the 
treatment should be prompt and radical, as delay in amputating 
a finger under such circumstances may lead to loss of an arm 
later, or possibly of a life. Gangrene due to diabetes or nephri¬ 
tis is far more common in the foot than in the hand. (See 
Chapter XVIII.) 




ANATOMICAL TUBERCLE 


399 


INFLAMMATIONS 

Infection in Wounds. —Although the hand is exposed to 
frequent injuries, large and small, repair usually takes place with¬ 
out inflammation sufficiently marked to demand surgical treatment. 
Such inflammation as does occur usually follows a punctured 
wound, or a wound into a preformed space, such as a joint or 
bursa or synovial sheath. The very fact that the wound is small 
favors the early closure of its mouth, and then, as the introduced 
germs multiply in it, they find it easier to penetrate the deeper 
tissues than to escape to the surface. 

The form and extent of the inflammation are determined by the 
nature of the wound, by the nature of the introduced germs, by 
the health of the individual, etc. We shall consider here only 
the forms which occur with frequency in the upper extremity. 
There are clinically seven such forms, the lesions in four being 
chiefly local, that is in the immediate vicinity of the wound; while 
in three they are chiefly regional, developing at a distance from the 
wound in structures which are associated with the wounded part 
by means of the lymphatics. 

These four types of local inflammation are anatomical tubercle, 
acute dermatitis, cellulitis, and abscess; and the regional forms are 
lymphangitis, lymphadenitis, and secondary abscess. These forms 
of inflammation are variously combined, but one or the other 
type usually predominates in any given case. It is not safe to 
infer from the form taken by the inflammation that it is due to 
a certain germ, for, according to Welch, a all of the affections 
caused by one species of the pyogenic cocci may be caused by any 
of the others.” 

Anatomical Tubercle. —This is an old term used to describe 
the reaction in wounds in the dissecting-room, which were common 
before the use of antiseptics. The term is still of use to describe 
a form of inflammation without suppuration limited to the imme¬ 
diate vicinity of the wound, lasting many days, and terminating 
in resolution, without or with a local necrosis of the skin (F ig. 
189). This wound, as all others, may be the starting-point for a 
more wide-spread inflammation. Anthrax (I' ig. T9, p. 132), syph¬ 
ilis (Fig. 215, p. 436), and tuberculosis all form similar lesions, 
so tliat a bacteriological examination should be made, if possible. 


400 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


Anatomical tubercle should be treated by wet dressings. Tf 
a malignant character of the infecting organism is proved or 

suspected, the tubercle 
should be excised. 

Dermatitis; Ery¬ 
sipelas. — Dermatitis 
produced by germ inva¬ 
sion is marked by ede¬ 
ma, redness, tenderness, 
and pain, and a constant 
daily extension of the 
involved area. Erysip¬ 
elas is the typical der¬ 
matitis of this charac¬ 
ter. It spreads rapidly, 
often as much as an 
inch a day, more rapid- 
lv in the direction of 

t/ 

the lymph current than 
against it. It mav also 

o v 

be known by the gener¬ 
al symptoms of an ini¬ 
tial chill and a high 
fever, but as a rule the 
symptoms are less se¬ 
vere when the erysipe¬ 
las occurs on an extremity than when the face is involved. Moist 
antiseptic dressings, applied and allowed to evaporate, give the pa¬ 
tient some relief from the pain, but they do not seem to have much 
effect upon the spread of the dermatitis. Fortunately, the inflam¬ 
mation tends to become less and less active the further it spreads, 
and so gradually dies out, and the patient recovers. In a minority 
of cases the inflammation extends to the deeper tissues, producing 
cellulitis, lymphangitis, and abscesses, which may prove fatal. 

A good application is formalin, one per cent solution, or a solu¬ 
tion of carbolic acid one part in sixty parts of alcohol and sixty 
parts of water. This is weak enough not to produce gangrene, 
and the anesthetic action of the carbolic acid is advantageous. (See 
also erysipelas of the face, p. 35.) 



Fig. 189. —Anatomical Tubercle, Duration One 
Week. The patient was a butcher, aged twen- 
ty-two years. 




ERYSIPELOID 


401 


Erysipeloid. —An equally typical infective dermatitis occurs 
on the hands of those engaged in handling meat. It is often spoken 
of as an erysipeloid to distinguish it from the more active erysip¬ 
elas. It does not usually produce an initial chill, and is accom¬ 
panied by only a slight rise in temperature. There is redness and 
edema of the skin, with a distinct edge to the affected area, which 
spreads outward in all directions very slowly, averaging one-quarter 
of an inch a day (Tig. 190). There is considerable local pain, 
sufficient at times to disturb sleep. After a few days the infection 
dies out in some parts of its growing edge, while still advancing 



Fig. 190. —Erysipeloid Dermatitis developing in a 'Wound of Hand of Seven 
Days’ Duration. Erysipeloid dermatitis noticed for three days. Patient a 
butcher aged twenty-one years. 

in others, so that it terminates in a number of separated and some¬ 
what faded red spots, which gradually disappear in.two or three 
weeks. Treatment consists in applications to relieve the pam. 
Ichthyol ointment has some advantages. 




402 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 



Cellulitis. —Cellulitis is a diffuse swelling of the skin and 
deeper soft tissues, due to infection. The lines of the skin are 
obliterated, the outline of the part is changed, its functions are 
limited, and it is held in a position of relaxation so that the painful 
pressure upon inflamed nerves may be as little as possible* (Fig. 
191). 

Cellulitis is so often an accompaniment of an abscess that in 
every case of cellulitis search should be made for suppuration. It 
may be concealed under the dried crust of an abrasion. A small 
collection of pus beneath sound skin gives greater resistance to the 
palpating finger than the remainder of the inflamed area, and it 
is also much more tender to the touch. If the quantity of pus is 
larger and near the surface, fluctuation can be obtained by making 

sudden slight impres¬ 
sions with one finger, 
while another rests 
quietly upon the sus¬ 
pected surface. Pus 
also gives a whitish or 
yellowish tint to the 
skin over it as com¬ 
pared with the sur¬ 
rounding skin. This 
is a confirming sign, 
which sometimes ap¬ 
pears early enough to 
be of value to the sur¬ 
geon, and which con¬ 
vinces the patient as 
no other sicn can, that 
the abscess is “ ripe 
enough to cut.” 

Treatment. —Cel¬ 
lulitis of the hand or 
arm should be treated 
by the application of 
gauze wet with an 
evaporating lotion, and the part should be kept at rest and mod¬ 
erately elevated by means of a sling. Evaporation should not be 


Fig. 191. —Ceubulttis of Finger with Abscess of 
Six Days’ Duration. Patient a man aged 
thirty-one years. 




CELLULITIS 


403 


prevented by oiled silk or any impervious material. The effect 
of the fluid is greater if it contains some alcohol. It may he 
applied either hot or cold. The use of antiseptics in the fluid is 



Fig. 192. —Gangrene of Finger Following Cellulitis, and Apparently due 
to Unrelieved Tension. The details are stated in the text. 

very common, but probably has no effect whatever if the skin 
is not broken. The fluid chosen should not produce permanent 
stains on the clothing; for this reason lead and opium wash, and 
aqueous solutions of ichthyol are not to be recommended. 

If pus is present it should be evacuated through a suitable in¬ 
cision, as mentioned beloAV. The best signs of pus are local ten¬ 
derness on pressure, and increased local tension. Even if there be 
no visible collection of pus, marked increase of tension and pain 
are sometimes sufficient indications for incision. Thus, the gan¬ 
grene of the finger shown in Figure 192 might have been avoided 
by an early incision. The history of this case is so instructive that 
it is worth giving in detail. 

A healthy man, aged thirty-two, scratched the back of his 
fourth digit with the wire on a bale of hay. For five days he 
28 




404 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


noticed no especial change in the finger. Then it began to swell, 
and he presented himself for treatment on the ninth day. There 
was moderate cellulitis of the whole finger, with pufhness at both 
phalangeal joints, but no especial tenderness at any point. A wet 
dressing of aluminum, acetate was applied. The next day the finger 
was in about the same condition. The patient had slept well, had 
a good appetite, and little if any fever. The wet dressing was 
reapplied. The next day the condition was about the same. The 
question of incision was discussed and decided against for the 
reason that the process was not extending, there was no lymphatic 
affection either in the vessels or glands, the general health of the 
patient was undisturbed, and no local point of tenderness or fluc¬ 
tuation could be made out. The following day was Sundav, and 
the patient was not seen. On Monday the epithelium, anteriorly 
and posteriorly, was lifted by watery blebs and the underlying 
skin of the finger was discolored, although there was no sharp 
line of demarcation. There were still no constitutional symp¬ 
toms, and, no cause for gangrene being evident, the hand was 
again dressed and put on a splint. The next day there was 
fluctuation in the posterior tendon sheath, and the demarcation 
between living and dead tissue was more apparent. The photo¬ 
graph, of which Figure 192 is a reproduction, was taken; the pus 
was evacuated through a wide posterior incision, and the inflam¬ 
matory process rapidly subsided. Mo carbolic acid had been used ; 
the infection, as shown by its course and by cultures made from the 
pus, was not especially virulent, and one is forced to the conclusion 
that the gangrene of the finger was the result of excessive tension 
and that an early longitudinal incision made anywhere through the 
skin of the finger, by relieving this tension, might have avoided 
this gangrene. 

Boil ; Furuncle. —Suppuration in the arm and hand is some¬ 
what controlled by existing structures so that it presents several 
well marked forms. The pus may be in the skin in the form of 
a pimple or a boil (Fig. 193). These lesions may have the same 
characteristics as similar lesions in other parts of the body, but it 
is worth noting that the epidermis of the palmar surface of the 
fingers and hand is so thick that pus may collect in it, raising the 
superficial portion like a blister. This is insensitive and can be 
cut away with forceps and scissors, exposing the deeper layer of 


BOIL 


405 


epidermis. This should be sponged and inspected, for it often con¬ 
tains a sinns leading to a second abscess underneath the skin, the 
so-called “ collar button’’ abscess. For the opening of the deeper 
part of such an abscess, local anesthesia is required. Great care 
should be taken not to carry the incision beyond the abscess cavity 
so that operation may not spread the infection beyond its existing 



Fig. 193.— Boil of Wrist with Secondary Pimples. Original infection from a 
corpse; secondary infection from the discharge from the first boil. 


limits. (See also p. 411.) A small wick of gutta-percha tissue 
makes an excellent drain. 

When the pus is situated in a finger deeper than the true skin, 
the development of the abscess will be determined to a considerable 
extent by the peculiar anatomical relations which exist in the fin¬ 
gers, and especially in the finger-tip. h igure 194 shows in a 
diagrammatic way how pus may form in four different spaces, and 
the symptoms will be more or less different in each case. These 
are: A, the space between the dorsal skin and the matrix; 
71 the space between two folds of skin at the side of the nail, 
C, the space between the formed nail and the underlying skin; 

28 




406 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 



Fig. 194.— Section of Terminal Segment of Finger. An abscess may form 
between the dorsal skin and the matrix of the nail at A; or between two 
folds of skin beside the nail at B; or between the nail and the underlying skin 
at C; or between the skin and the front of the phalanx, as shown in D. 


and D , the space between the 



Fig. 195. —Abscess Tip of Thumb of 
Thirteen Days’ Duration, with 
Spontaneous Rupture; Type D, 
Fig. 194. Note that the swelling 
does not pass the interphalangeal 
joint. 


skill and the front or side of the 
phalanx. These are not pre¬ 
formed spaces, but with the de¬ 
velopment of pus in the tissues 
they become abscess cavities. 

An abscess of the type D 
usually following a prick with 
a pin or splinter, situated in 
the distal segment of the thumb 
or finger, may “ point ” at the 
very tip of the finger. If not 
properly relieved it may extend 
deeper, causing necrosis of the 
tip of the last phalanx, or it 
may extend upward into the 
hand or into the flexor tendon 
sheath. Fortunately these com- 
plications are relatively late in 
occurrence, so that if the abscess 
is drained within a few davs of 

t/ 

its origin they are usually avoid¬ 
ed. The flexor tendons do not 
extend further than the base of 
the distal phalanx; consequently 
suppuration which is limited to 




















PARONYCHIA 


407 


the distal segment of the digit cannot involve the tendon sheath; 
yet this type of suppuration is often wrongly spoken of as a 
“felon,” a convenient term for purulent thecitis or suppura¬ 
tion in a tendon sheath. Fig. 195 shows a thumb with an 
abscess of type D of thirteen days’ duration,- which ruptured 
spontaneously. 

Abscesses of types A and C> and of D , if at the tip of the 
finger, may he opened by a transverse incision. This incision gives 
good drainage, and leaves little deformity. A longitudinal inci¬ 
sion is preferable if the abscess is farther from the tip, either of 
type B or D. 

Paronychia. —Paronychia, or “run-around,”. is suppuration 
about the root of a nail. In order to understand its development 
and the treatment which will afford relief, one should know how 
a nail grows. The epithelium of the back of the finger is folded 
in upon itself and thickened. This double layer of actively multi¬ 
plying cells reaches nearly to the terminal joint, and is called 
the matrix of the nail, Figure 194, C and D. 1 he lower part 
of the matrix is thicker than the upper and forms the greater 
part of the nail. The distal edge of the underlying part of the 
matrix forms the whitish semilunar line visible in most finger¬ 
nails. A nail which is thick and strong, like the thumb-nail, has 
a more extended matrix than the more delicate nails on the ulnar 
side of the hand. 

If a splinter or a pin passes between the nail and the skin 
above or below it, the tissues are damaged, and an abscess may 
result. Such an abscess may also result from infection entering 
through a break in the skm at the side of the nail a hang nail, 
Fig. 194, B. The infection spreads easily in a transverse direc¬ 
tion; but before much pus accumulates in the situation A , Figure 
194, it will also travel beyond the matrix and enter the space C. 
The reverse also happens. An abscess starting in space B 
often extends away from the nail and develops an abscess 
of the type D. The spontaneous rupture of a paronychia is 
usually posteriorly between the nail and the reflected skin (F ig. 
196). The drainage thus obtained may not be sufficient to effect 
a cure, but usually prevents the suppuration from extending to 
the front of the finger, or upward into the hand, though these 

complications do occur. 


408 


INFLAMMATIONS OF TIIE ARM AND HAND 


Treatment. —This naturally varies according to the situ¬ 
ation of the pus. If the pus is beneath the formed nail, a suffi- 



Fig. 196.— Acute Paronychia of Three Weeks’ Duration, with Spontaneous 
Rupture of Abscess. Pus in spaces marked A and B, Fig. 194. Patient a 
Woman aged twenty-one years. 


cient part of the latter should be cut away to give free exit. Such 
a condition often follows the passage of a splinter beneath the 
nail, even though it does not extend as far as the edge of the 
matrix. 

If the pus is in space A or B and has not yet extended to space 
C an incision should be made through the reflected skin as far as 
the pus extends. In doing this the scalpel should be kept flat 
upon the nail and close to it, so that the incision does not appear 
on the surface of the finger at all. In many cases a short, early 
incision will prevent the separation of the nail from the anterior 
part of the matrix. 

Tf the pus from space B has reached space C, a transverse 
incision should be made clear across the nail at the semilunar 
line, and the proximal portion of the nail removed. It will be 
found adherent only at its lateral margins. If the distal portion 





PARONYCHIA 


409 


of the nail is still attached to the tender skin beneath it, it may 
be left as a protector. In many cases it will have been lifted np 
by the pus. The upper and lower portions of the matrix should 
be kept apart for two or three days by a folded piece of rubber 
tissue, and a wet dressing applied. 

A longitudinal incision is less satisfactory, since it does not 
properly drain the pus cavity. Multiple longitudinal incisions 
have been advised by some, but they are unnecessarily mutilating, 
and require constant care, lest they close prematurely and fail to 
drain. Moreover any longitudinal incision which is made deep 



Fig. 197. —Acute Paronychia Ten Days After Removal of Old Nail, and One 
Month After the Beginning of the Suppuration. Same subject as Fig. 196. 

enough to pass through the whole matrix is likely to produce a 
permanent ridge in the nail or a split nail. Drainage carried 
out as indicated above will invariably be followed by a perfect 
nail. 

Figure 197 shows the linger ten days after removal of the 
nail to secure proper drainage. All suppuration has subsided, and 
the uninjured new nail is already showing. 




410 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


If drainage is secured as already indicated by removal of the 
proximal portion of the nail, while the older portion is left to 
protect the finger, the new nail by its growth must push the old 
nail off from the finger. Its thin edge may be crumpled up by so 

doing, and this may cause the patient 
some pain. The removal of the rem¬ 
nant of the old nail will give the pa¬ 
tient relief, and make it easier for the 
new nail to grow out smooth and 
straight. The tenderness of the fin¬ 
ger resulting from removal of the old 
nail quickly subsides. 

Chronic Paronychia.—Portions of 
formed nail, which are partly loosened 
and partly attached, may act as foreign 
bodies and keep up suppuration. This 
gives a chronic form of paronychia 
(Pig. 198). Treatment consists in the 
removal of every bit of formed nail 
and the application of a wet dressing 
for a few days. The two layers of the 
matrix should be kept apart by the in¬ 
terposition of rubber tissue, or a probe 
may be passed between them every two 
or three days until the new nail ap¬ 
pears. This method of treatment will 
insure a nail without deformity unless 
the matrix has been previously dam¬ 
aged. 

Unfortunately, in many cases, such 
damage exists, so that one should be 
careful in making promises as to ulti¬ 
mate results. The possibility of syphilic infection should also be 
kept in mind in these chronic paronychias. 

A patient will usually wish to know how long it will be before 
the appearance of the finger is restored. It is safe to say that it 
will be three months before the new nail grows out to the tip of 
the finger, and at least another two months before the irregular 
part of the new nail has grown off and has been cut away. 



Fig. 198. —Chronic Parony¬ 
chia, Four Months. Note 
that the edges of the old 
nail interfere with the new, 
leading to local recurrences 
of suppuration. Patient a 
woman aged twenty - two 
years. 




SUPPURATIVE THECITIS 


411 


Abscess of the Finger above the Tip. —Suppuration in the 

proximal or middle segment of a finger may be simply subcutane¬ 
ous, or in a tendon sheath, or in a joint. It is of the greatest 
importance to recognize the fact that many abscesses of the finger 
at an early stage are simply in the subcutaneous fat, and do not 
involve the special structures of the digit. Hence the importance 
of an early operation. The sense of touch, both of the operator 
and of the patient, often forms the surest guide to a correct in¬ 
cision. In opening such an abscess the skin only should be divided, 
great care being taken not to spread the suppuration by the care¬ 
less incision of a hitherto not infected tendon sheath or joint. If 
the situation of t.lie pus warrants it, it is best to make the incision 
a little to one side of the median line. 

Suppurative Thecitis. —Suppuration in a tendon sheath is 
called purulent thecitis, or felon, or whitlow. The infective agent, 



Fig. 199.— Abscess in the Tendon Sheath of the Thumb from a Sprinter, ow 
Two Weeks' Duration. Compare the shape of this thumb with that shown 
in Fig. 195 on page 406. Fifth digit contracted thirty-five v-ssj-rs from infection. 
Patient a man aged forty years. 








412 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


which in the serious cases at least, is usually a streptococcus, is 
generally carried by a pin, needle, or sliver into the tendon sheath 
of the flexor side of the finger or thumb (Fig. 199). Suppuration 
does not immediately distend the whole length of the sheath, so 
that a timely incision may prevent its spreading so far as the palm 
of the hand. Its extension from the tendon sheath of one digit to 
that of another is rarely seen, although mentioned as an anatom¬ 
ical possibility in the case of the thumb and little finger. 

The symptoms of suppurative tliecitis may not be sufficiently 
distinct to enable one to say positively whether the pus is inside 
of the tendon sheath or merely subcutaneous. This distinction is 
the less important, since in either case it is necessary to divide 
the skin for drainage, and when this has been done it will be 
evident whether the sheath is or is not distended with pus. 

In both cases there are edema of the finger, great tenderness, 
and ]30ssibly tense fluctuation. Motions of the joints are inhibited 
by the tenderness, so that the inability of the patient to flex the 
finger is not of much assistance in a differential diagnosis. Pain 
caused by contraction of the flexor muscles when the finger is so 
held that no motion of the bones is possible, is significant of sup¬ 
puration within the sheath. If there is pus in a joint, pressure 
on the tip of the finger will cause pain. If the pus is inside 
or outside of a tendon-sheath, such. pressure will not be especially 
painful. 

Treatment.— Pus in a tendon sheath, like pus everywhere 
else, demands evacuation. In general, incisions for this purpose 
should be longitudinal, in order to avoid unnecessary injury of 
vessels and nerves; and while the incision should be deep enough 
and long enough to afford free drainage, in no case should it be 
made deeper than the pus. The old rule to cut every felon to the 
bone is a barbarity which has no place in modern surgery. 

The close relations of the tendon sheaths to many important 
structures in the hand makes it desirable that some more exact 
rules should be given for their drainage. In every case of sup¬ 
puration in the hand, unless it is evident that the case is one of 
the simple types already described in which the pus cavity is situ¬ 
ated within or just beneath the skin, a general anesthetic should 
be given. Furthermore the parts should be rendered bloodless by 
elevation of the arm and application of a tourniquet around the 


SUPPURATIVE THECITIS 


413 


upper arm. The Lest form consists of five or six turns of an 
elastic rubber bandage. In no case should the bandage be wound 
spirally around the whole arm from the hand upward, lest the 
suppuration be spread in this way. 

The first incision should be made through the point of infec¬ 
tion. Even if a previous incision has been made at that point, 
it will often be found to be insufficient to afford free drainage. 
If the case is seen at an early stage, this digital incision may 
suffice. 

In making the incision one should divide one tissue plane after 
another for a distance of about an inch. As each plane is divided, 
it should be fully retracted, so that the operator may see exactly 
what, he is doing. 

It is important to remember that in some cases of deep suppu¬ 
ration of the finger, as well as of the hand, the pus lies outside 
of the tendon sheath. One should never hunt for pus with a probe, 
in this portion of the body at least, as it may spread the infection. 
When an abscess has been opened, its extent may be determined by 
a probe, provided the latter is not passed into the tendon sheath. 

If incision is made in the finger or the thumb, it should be 
made either in the median line or slightly to one side of it. It 
should be carried deeper, step by step, with the flaps retracted, in 
a good light, until the pus is evacuated. If the tendon sheath is 
exposed and is not distended with fluid, it should in no case be 
incised. If it is distended with fluid, the character of the same 
may be ascertained by aspiration with a hypodermic syringe. If 
purulent or seropurulent, the tendon sheath.should be drained by 
an incision from half an inch to an inch long. 

If the whole tendon sheath is distended with pus, it will be 
necessary to drain also its upper end. Incision for this purpose 
in case of the index, middle, and ring fingers should be made in 
the palm of the hand directly over the tendon involved. An in¬ 
cision about one inch long, with its center opposite the metacarpo¬ 
phalangeal joint will usually suffice (Fig. 200, D). The tendon 
sheath should never be laid open from end to end, as this pro¬ 
cedure is almost certain to cause sloughing of the tendon. 

One word of caution in regard to palmar suppuration: The 
tendon sheath of course lies beneath the palmar fascia, riiis lim¬ 
its the swelling of the palm. On the back of the hand there is no 


414 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


such strong fibrous tissue to limit swelling, and it sometimes hap¬ 
pens that the hack of the hand will he more swollen than the 
front, although the suppuration may he wholly confined to the 
space between the metacarpal bones and the palmar fascia. 

One should not he misled by this swelling into making a pos¬ 
terior incision, for at this stage of the process posterior incision 
is useless. Such was the series of events in the case shown in 
Figures 200 and 201. The patient, a nurse, noticed a soreness 
in the end of the left index-finger. There was no history of in- 



Fig. 200. —Suppuration in the Index-Finger Extending into the Palm (Puru¬ 
lent Thecitis). A, The point of infection and the original incision, probably 
insufficient in depth; D, incision at the upper end of the tendon sheath which 
stopped the infective process; E, an incision into the abscess cavity outside of 
the tendon sheath. There are small drains in incisions D and E. Patient a 
woman aged twenty-five years. 


jury, and no abrasion in the skin could be discovered. An hour 
later the finger began to ache and throb. Two hours after that 
there was a chill and a temperature of 102, and the pain had 
extended into the hand and arm. Five hours after the first 
symptom the finger was tense, swollen, and extremely sensitive, 




SUPPURATIVE THECITIS 


415 


and there was a small yellow spot near the tip on the palmar sur¬ 
face. It was cocainized and incised by a physician, hut no pus 
was found (Fig. 200, A). A wet dressing was applied. The 
following day the swelling had extended to the hand and arm, 



Fig. 201. --—Same Subject as Fig. 200. Posterior view. Incisions B and C, which 
failed to reach the cavity of the abscess on account of their wrong situation. 

The drain at C extends through the hand from D. 

\ 

and the general symptoms were more severe. On the second day 
after the first symptoms another physician chloroformed the pa¬ 
tient, and made a lateral incision in the finger and a posterior 
incision in the hand, being misled by the great amount of swell¬ 
ing in these two places. Cloudy serum, hut no pus was found 
(Incisions B and C, Fig. 201). .Two days later, as the swelling 
in the hand and arm continued, I saw the patient, and under ether 
made a palmar incision into an abscess cavity (Incision D, Fig. 
200), and also a second incision at the outer limit of the abscess 
cavity (Fig. 200, E). There seems no reason to doubt that the 
palmar incision would have terminated the suppuration if it had 
been made on the second day, just as readily as it did when it was 




416 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


made on the fourth day. A temperature chart is appended, Fig¬ 
ure 202. 

The photographs, which were taken some days later, do not 
show the amount of swelling that existed at the time of incision, 



Fig. 202. —Temperature Chart of the Patient Whose Hand is Shown in 
* Fig. 200. 


and are introduced to show the correct and incorrect sites of 
incision. The suppuration at the tip of the finger involved the 



Fig. 203. —Same Subject as Fig. 200. Ultimate result three months later. 

hone, a part of which disintegrated and came away in granular 
form. The ultimate result is shown in Figure 203. The patient 
obtained a movable finger. 

























































































































SUPPURATIVE THECITIS 


417 


In case the suppuration involves the tendon sheath of the 
thumb or little finger, the situation is much more complicated, 
since these tendon sheaths usually extend into the wrist. 

Three incisions may therefore be necessary to afford sufficient 
drainage: First, the digital incision at the point of infection, usu¬ 
ally near the tip of the thumb or little finger; second, the incision 
in the palm; and third, the incision in the wrist. 

In the case of the thumb, the palmar incision should be made 
along the inner border of the outer head of the flexor brevis pol- 
licis. This incision is almost in line with the inner surface of 
the thumb when the first phalanx is fully extended on the meta¬ 
carpal bone. It should not be carried further upward than the 
second carpometacarpal joint, for fear of dividing branches of 
the median nerve going to the short muscles of the thumb. 

The incision in the wrist may be made either to the inner or 
outer side of the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis, a landmark 
which is easily recognized. It should extend from the lower trans¬ 
verse crease of the wrist an inch or inch and a half upward. One 
comes more directly upon the tendon of the thumb by making the 
incision to the inner side of the flexor carpi radialis, but drain¬ 
age in this situation sometimes inflames the median nerve. It is 
therefore probably better to make the incision outside of the ten¬ 
don of the flexor carpi radialis, and if the radial artery is exposed 
to contact with the drain, it should be ligated in two places and 
divided. Otherwise its wall may become eroded, and fatal hem¬ 
orrhage result. 

When the infection starts in the little finger, the palmar in¬ 
cision should be placed between the digital branches of the median 
and ulnar nerves. In order to avoid these nerves, it should be 
made directly over the fourth metacarpal bone, beginning a little 
above the head of the bone and extending upward to the annular 
ligament. The superficial palmar arch must be ligated and 
divided. 

The incision in the wrist must be so situated as to expose the 
flexor sublimis and flexor profundus tendons, as the pus sur¬ 
rounds or separates these when it extends above the annular liga¬ 
ment. This large bundle of tendons is easily felt in the normal 
wrist. The incision should be along the inner border of the 
bundle. If the tendons cannot be felt, a linear incision should be 


418 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


made from the lowest transverse crease of the wrist upward for 
an inch and a half, and in a line one-half inch to the outer side 
of the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris. This tendon, it will be 
remembered, terminates in the pisiform bone. If even these land¬ 
marks are obscured, the line selected for incision should be placed 
one-third of the distance from the ulnar to the radial side of the 
wrist. The sublimis tendons are quickly exposed. Pus may lie 
superficial to them or between them and the profundus tendons, or 
between the profundus tendons and the pronator quadratus. If 
the pus is in the last named space, it may be well to make a second 
incision alona: the ulnar border of the wrist, so as to obtain drain- 
age behind the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris. The only two 
structures which one need fear in making these incisions are the 
ulnar nerve and the ulnar artery. The nerve lies close to the 
outer (radial) side of the flexor carpi ulnaris tendon and the 
artery just outside of the nerve, next to the sublimis tendons. 
The artery may be divided and ligated, if necessary. 

As stated above, the tendon sheath should never be opened 
if the pus lies only outside it. If the sheath has to be opened on 
account of pus within it, no probe or director should be pushed 
upward along the sheath, lest it carry the infection further than 
it has already gone. The operator should rely on the external 
appearance of the finger, on the feeling of tension, and the pain 
caused by pressure to guide him in making his incision. When 
the pus cavity has been opened, and the edges of the wound are 
retracted, the eye is the safest guide to the extent of the cavity; 
but there is not the same objection to the use of a probe in abscess 
cavities which extend away from the tendon sheath. Such cav¬ 
ities, especially when situated near the base of the finger and out¬ 
side of the tendon sheath, frequently extend from front to back, 
or from back to front of the finger, and so need to be opened on 
both sides in order to be properly drained. 

The abscess cavity should be washed and sponged clean, but 
not curetted—a most cruel procedure and absolutely useless. The 
whole extent of the wound superficial to the tendon sheath should 
be lightly filled with gauze to prevent its surfaces from adhering. 
A gauze dressing should be applied and kept constantly moist with 
a mild antiseptic or water. Some doctors seem to have a passion 
for stuffing a wound full of iodoform gauze and covering it with 


SUPPURATIVE THECITIS 


419 


a dry dressing. In the case of a clean wound this does very little 
harm; in a suppurating wound, unless the outflow of pus is very 
free, the plug may suffice to keep most of the pus within the 
wound, while a little escapes and dries in the dressing. This may 
seal up the wound and literally reproduce the abscess, one side 
of which will then he formed by the gauze and inspissated pus. 
Pus will then reaccumulate under pressure, and the usual signs 
of an abscess—swelling, heat, pain, etc.—will reappear. It is 
needless to say that such treatment retards the healing of the 
wound, even if no more serious result follows. If the gauze is 
placed loosely in the wound, and the dressing is kept constantly 
moist, the pus will soak into the dressing as fast as it forms. Its 
accumulation under pressure is impossible, and the absorption of 
further infectious material is at least not favored. 

If drainage is required in the deeper portion of the wound, 
gutta-percha tissue presents many advantages. Being more flexible 
than rubber-tubing, it conforms to the shape of the wound, and 
therefore exerts a minimum of injurious pressure. Unlike gauze, 
it never adheres to a wound, and as it does not soak up the dis¬ 
charge, it cannot by evaporation become dry and prematurely seal 
the wound. If it is desired to keep a larger opening, the gutta¬ 
percha tissue may be rolled loosely around a wick of gauze, making 
a flabby cigarette drain (Fig. 306). 

The part should be kept at rest. If the inflammation is slight, 
it is sufficient to place the hand in a sling. If the inflammation 
is more severe, a splint should also be employed. 

The hand should be dressed once or twice a day. A good plan 
is to soak it in a hot, weak, antiseptic solution for half an hour, 
before or after removing the dressing. This stimulates the circu¬ 
lation, and greatly favors the exit of pus. If irrigation is em¬ 
ployed, the fluid used should be mild in character, and injected 
with great gentleness. One should never use a strong solution of 
peroxid of hydrogen, as the rapidly forming bubbles of gas dis¬ 
tend the sinuses, causing the patient pain, and possibly spread¬ 
ing the infection. One part of peroxid to six of water is suffi¬ 
ciently strong for such use. An abundance of a weak fluid is a 
far better cleanser than a little strong antiseptic. 

In most cases nothing is gained by an early removal of the 
rauzc which has been placed in the wound. Unless there are 

O J- 



420 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 




signs of insufficient drainage, i. e., continued or increasing swell¬ 
ing, tenderness and lieat, it is better to leave the gauze packing 
for three or four days until it loosens. As granulations form, 
the dressing need not be changed so frequently, and in a week 
or more a balsam of Peru gauze may be inserted, and a dry 
dressing employed. When the wound has become superficial, mas¬ 
sage and passive motions should be added to the treatment, so as 
to maintain the mobility of 
joints and tendons. 


Fig. 204. — Suppuration in Tendon 
Sheath Four Weeks. Drainage 
sufficient to reduce the swelling, but 
not to effect a cure. 


ig. 205. — Back of Same Finger. 
Note the absence of characteristic 
swelling. 


Sometimes the patient does not apply for treatment until the 
abscess in the tendon sheath has ruptured externally, or lias been 
evacuated through a minute incision. This relieves the acute 
swelling (Figs. 204 and 205), and changes the shape of the finger, 
as is easily seen by comparison with Figure 191, page 402, but 
leaves an imperfectly drained sinus. Proper drainage may then 
be obtained by a longer incision or a second incision opposite the 
proximal phalanx. 





SUPPURATIVE THECITIS 


421 



Complications. —Suppuration in a tendon sheath if not too 
violent or too long continued may subside and leave a movable 
tendon. If more 
severe, the tendon 
is adherent, but 
will usually become 
movable in time. 

If the process is 
still more severe, 
the tendon sloughs, 
the wound heals by 
granulation, and 
the scar ultimate¬ 
ly contracts, giving 
a useless finger, 
whose joints are 
movable, hut which 
cannot he flexed, 
as the flexor ten¬ 
don is gone, and 
cannot he extend¬ 
ed on account of 
the scar. This 
was the condition 
of the little finger 
in the hand shown 
in Figure 109, on 
page 411. If such a finger is in the middle of the palm its flexed 
phalanges should he amputated (Fig. 20G). If a finger remains 
rigidly extended, it is almost as much in the way. 

The results of an old infection of the hand, which involved 
all the extensor tendons, is shown in Figure 207. The ulcer is 
recent. 

A virulent infection of a tendon sheath may lead to necrosis 
of hone, or even gangrene of the whole finger, hut before it does 
so it usually extends to . the synovial sheaths of the hand and 
wrist, or to the joints, and it may form an abscess in the forearm 
or axilla, or go on to general septicemia and death. 

If the infection extends above the wrist, it may form an ah- 


Fig. 206. —Cicatricial Contraction of Finger Fol¬ 
lowing Suppuration in Tendon Sheath Twenty- 
five Years Previous. Joint movable, but tendon 
gone. 



422 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


scess in tlie forearm, beneath the bellies of the flexor sublimus 
muscle. Such an abscess should be opened along the ulnar border 



Fig. 207.—Loss of Extensor Tendons from Suppuration, and Contraction 
of Scar of Many Years Previous. The ulcer is recent. 

of the forearm, between the flexor carpi ulnaris and the flexor 
sublimus digitorum muscle. In this way all risk of injuring the 

median nerve is 
avoided. The ul¬ 
nar nerve is pro¬ 
tected by the flexor 
carpi ulnaris mus¬ 
cle. Should the ul¬ 
nar artery be in¬ 
jured, it may be 
ligated and divided 
without harm to 
the patient. 

Ho matter how 
extensive the sup¬ 
puration, the same 
principles of treat¬ 
ment are applica¬ 
ble, viz., free in¬ 
cision, drainage fa¬ 
cilitated by a wet dressing or a constant bath, and absolute rest 
to the part. These principles faithfully observed will often fully 



Fig. 208. —Suppuration in Joint Foluowing Pene¬ 
tration by a Splinter Six Weeks Previously. 








SUPPURATIVE SYNOVITIS 


423 



restore the function, even though suppuration has extended into 
the forearm. 

Suppurative Synovitis; Suppurative Arthritis. —In¬ 
fection may reach a joint and set up suppuration in the synovial 
sac which lines it, or in the ends of the bones themselves. This 
accident is usually due to the direct entrance of some sharp instru¬ 
ment into the joint itself. 

For example, a man with 
clenched fist strikes an¬ 
other a blow in the mouth. 

The edge of one of the 
incisor teeth may easily 
break through the skin 
and the capsule of the 
metacarpophalangeal 
joint as they are tightly 
stretched over the head of 
the bone. The wound it¬ 
self appears trivial, but 
in the course of a day or 
two the joint swells and 
becomes very painful, a 
little mucopurulent fluid 
finds its way out through 
the wound, and may be 
recognized by its tenac¬ 
ity if the finger which 
touches it is slowly drawn 
away. This is an absolute 
sign that fluid has come 
from the cavity of a joint 
or synovial sheath or a bur¬ 
sa ; in other words, that it contains mucin. Pressure on the end of 
the injured finger, tending to crowd the bones together, causes pain. 

The shape of the swollen finger also indicates that the in¬ 
flammation is located in a joint; for its maximum transverse 
diameter coincides with the plane of the affected joint, the whole 
finger being fusiform (Fig. 208). Compare the shape of the 
fingers shown in Figure 191, page 402, and Figure 204, page 420. 


Fig. 209. —Suppurative Arthritis and Loss 
of Metacarpal Following Wound of 
Joint Made by Teeth One Year Pre¬ 
vious. 




424 INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 

Suppuration in a joint, if prolonged, leads to destruction of 
the cartilage, and later of a portion of one or both hones which 
make up the joint. If only one hone is destroyed, there may still 



Fig. 210. —Radiograph of a Hand in which There was Extensive Loss of 

Bone Following Suppurative Arthritis. 


he considerable motion in the joint, so great is the power of the 
body to maintain its functions under adverse circumstances. In 





SUPPURATIVE SYNOVITIS 


425 


Figure 209 is shown an extreme case of this character, in which 
the whole metacarpal bone was lost from suppuration following 
a tooth-wound on the hack of the metacarpophalangeal joint. 
The finger had a considerable range of motion. Figure 210 is a 
radiograph of a similar case in which a part of the metacarpal 
bone was preserved. In the usual case the destruction of carti¬ 
lage produces a rough grating when the bones are slipped upon 
each other; but if free drainage is instituted at this stage the case 
goes on to recovery without loss of bone. Convalescence is slow, 
however, and the function of the joint may never be fully regained. 
If treatment is commenced before erosion of the cartilaginous 
ends of the bones, two or three weeks’ treatment should result 
in complete healing of the wound, and restoration of function 
should ultimately be complete. 

Treatment. —The treatment of suppurative synovitis con¬ 
sists in an incision into the joint, irrigation of the joint cavity 
with peroxid of hydrogen and water, one part to six or eight, a 
moist gauze dressing, with or without a drain which reaches 
through the capsule of the joint, and a splint to keep the bones 
absolutely at rest. If the wound is a posterior one, the incision 
should also be made posteriorly. If the wound is an anterior 
one, the joint may perhaps be drained more satisfactorily from 
the posterior side; or anterior and posterior drainage may be 
indicated. In a few days when the acute suppuration has sub¬ 
sided, the daily discharge will consist of a few drops of sero- 
mucopurulent fluid. If a drain has been kept in the joint cavity, 
it should now be removed. The gauze dressing should be light, 
not more than six or eight or twelve thicknesses, so that the splint 
may hold the finger firmly. A sheet of thin tin, cut from a 
cracker-box and molded accurately to the finger and hand, an¬ 
swers admirably for this purpose (Fig. 211). A pattern should 
first be cut out of paper. The base of the splint should reach 
nearly to the carpus, and should extend for an inch on either side 
of the metacarpal bone. The remainder of the splint should be 
broad enough to form a gutter half encircling the finger. The 
sharp edges of the splint should be slightly bent away from the 
hand to avoid pressure. 

Sometimes, on account of pain, the finger cannot at once be 
extended. The splint should then be bent to fit the position of 



426 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


the finger, and at each daily dressing a little more extension can 
thus he obtained. 

Treatment of this character to be successful must extend over 
several weeks. In the beginning the dressing should be changed 



Fig. 211. Tin Splint Cut from Cracker-box with Bandage Scissors, for Use 
in Case of Suppuration of the Metacarpophalangeal Joint of the Second 
Digit. At the left of the illustration are two paper patterns. The tin splint was 
cut from the pattern next to it. The other shows the shape of a splint for the 
third or fourth metacarpophalangeal joint. 

• 

every day, and later on three times a week. The ultimate result 
in many instances will he a movable joint, although one cannot 
promise such a favorable outcome. However, most patients prefer 
even a stiff joint to resection of a joint or amputation of the 
finger, which are the alternatives of choice. 

W lien the sinus has quite healed, the patient should still wear 
his splint and keep the finger at rest for a couple of weeks, treat¬ 
ing the finger with a daily hath and rub, but not attempting to 
bend it until the swelling and soreness have disappeared. Undue 
eagerness on the part of the surgeon or patient to prevent stiffness 
of the finger by early motion will probably result in a renewed 
secretion of mucopurulent fluid into the joint cavity, which will in 
turn require another incision and a new period of treatment. 





SUPPURATIVE OLECRANON BURSITIS 


427 


If the ends of the bones are dead, so that they grate roughly 
upon one another, the casting off of the dead tissue may still 
safely be left to nature if free drainage is provided. This is a 
tedious process, and the financial condition of the patient may 
make necessary the resection of the ends of the hones or the am¬ 
putation of the finger. The latter operation usually gives a 
shorter period of recovery. 

The description of suppuration in one of the joints of the 
fingers and the treatment therewith outlined is applicable to sup¬ 
puration in the larger joints of the wrist and arm; but the con¬ 
stitutional effects of these larger lesions are so great that the 
patient who suffers with them has passed from the field of minor 
surgery.” 

Suppurative Olecranon Bursitis. —A rather common form 
of abscess in the arm starts in the olecranon bursa. The wound 



Fig. 212.— Suppurative Olecranon Bursitis. The characteristic swelling of the 
distended bursa is somewhat masked by the cellulitis aroun 1 . 


may be insignificant. The germs multiply rapidly in the bursa, as 
they do in all preformed serous cavities. If the bursa is intact, so 
that the seromucopurulent contents cannot escape, palpation will 
at once reveal a distinct rounded tense swelling. In most cases the 
fluid which accumulates in the bursa escapes through the wound, 






428 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


and this prevents distention of the bursa, while the edema of the 
adjacent soft parts obscures its outline. This renders a diagnosis 
more difficult. Sometimes suppuration starting in the bursa breaks 
into the tissues outside its wall, and then the usual signs of a 
subcutaneous abscess are added (Fig. 212). 

Treatment consists in exposure of the abscess cavity by a longi¬ 
tudinal incision. The bursa should be removed or allowed to 
granulate from the bottom, as otherwise relapse is likely to occur. 
If there is an extensive abscess, it is often of advantage to drain 
on both sides of the arm. Through and through drainage by means 
of gauze or rubber tubing may then be employed, but only for a 
few days. After that the drains should be inserted from both sides, 
but should not touch in the middle, so that repair of the deeper 
portion may be favored. It is easy to keep up a sinus by leaving 
a drain through a limb. 

Lymphangitis. —It was stated on page 399 that inflamma¬ 
tory lesions may develop in related structures at a distance from 
the origin of an infection. These lesions are conveniently spoken 
of as “ regional ” in relation to the original lesion. They are 



Fig. 213. —Infected Wound of Finger with Abscess Developing in the Course 
of the Lymphatic Vessel. The arrows are directed to these points. 


lymphangitis and lymphadenitis. Either may lead to the forma¬ 
tion of an abscess. 

Lymphangitis is produced by the extension of infection along 
the lymph vessels which drain the site of an infected wound. 
Usually the wound is insignificant ; sometimes it is found with 
difficulty. The inflammation of the lymph vessels causes them 






LYMPHADENITIS 


429 


to appear as slightly indurated red streaks. They are usually only 
slightly tender and painful. More than one vessel is involved 
in most cases. 

Treatment consists in the cleansing, and drainage, if necessary, 
of the original wound. When this has been accomplished the lym¬ 
phangitis quickly subsides, sometimes in a day or two. The portion 
of the arm which is inflamed is often enveloped in a wet dressing. 
This may he either cold or hot. The dressing makes the arm feel 
comfortable, and by maintaining an even temperature it probably 
facilitates recovery, hut its curative action must he very slight. 

Only rarely does an abscess form in the course of the inflamed 
lymphatics (Tig. 213). 

Lymphadenitis. —The regional lymph glands are very fre¬ 
quently involved in connection with infected wounds of the fingers 
and hand. In many instances it is evident that the bacteria pass 
through the lymphatic vessels without visibly affecting them, and 
produce a reaction in the lymphatic glands. The glands at the 
elbow are not often involved; those in the axilla are usually the 
ones affected, whether the wound is on the front or the hack of 
the hand. In many cases the glands are palpably enlarged and 
tender, but if the original wound is properly treated, suppuration 
in the glands does not take place; hut even in favorable cases they 
do not so quickly resume their normal condition as do the lym¬ 
phatic vessels. One or two weeks are often necessary before the 
tenderness and swelling disappear. In other cases the swelling 
of the glands continues or increases until abscesses are formed in 
them, which in the course of time may break through the capsules 
and form a single large abscess. Infection from the hand affects 
the deeper glands of the axilla, so that the latter may swell to a 
considerable extent before the skin shows any change. 

If the infection starts in the hair-follicles of the axilla, and 
an abscess is formed in the subcutaneous fat or in the supeificial 
glands, the parts present quite a different appearance (Fig. 214). 
This is a very common trouble, and one which is annoying rather 
than serious. The skin is invariably reddened, and shows one or 
more pustules, or perhaps also sinuses, if the abscess has already 
ruptured. The whole inflamed mass can he moved upon the deep 
axillary fascia. The process is correctly termed a superficial axil¬ 
lary abscess. 


430 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


Treatment. —Focal anesthesia is sufficient for the treatment 
of a superficial axillary abscess. The hair should be cropped with 
scissors, the skin washed and cocainized. The abscess should then 
be opened by a transverse incision near its lowest portion, an 


Fig. 214. —Superficial Axillary Abscess from Infection About Hairs; Twelve 
Days. Pus is seen dropping from a spontaneous rupture. Patient a man aged 
thirty-nine years. 



incision, in other words, parallel to the seam joining a sleeve to 
a coat. Fragments of glands should he curetted or cut away, and 
if more than one abscess cavity exists, they should all he made to 
drain freely into the wound. The edges of the wound should he 
kept apart by gauze for some days, until granulation is well estab¬ 
lished in the deeper parts of the wound. 

The treatment of suppurating deep glands of the axilla is a 
more serious undertaking, and is best carried out when a general 
anesthetic has been given. The skin of the axilla should be shaved 








ECZEMA 


431 


and cleansed and a longitudinal incision made; an incision, in 
other words, parallel to the edge of the greater pectoral muscle. 
If the glands are freely movable in the surrounding areolar tissue 
their removal is easy; it may be very difficult if exudation has 
matted the various planes of tissue together. Under such cir¬ 
cumstances the surgeon may think it best simply to open the various 
abscesses, drain them, and wait for the wounds to close by granu¬ 
lation. He usually has to wait some weeks, as the tissue of the 
gland is so spongelike that it affords a splendid opportunity for the 
continued propagation of bacteria, while the circulation in this 
spongy tissue is so good that the bacteria do not generally cause 
its necrosis after the pressure has been relieved by the incision of 
the gland capsule. Therefore, it is a good rule to remove a sup¬ 
purating gland wherever this can be done easily. The next best 
thing to the complete removal of the gland is to scoop it out of 
its capsule piecemeal by means of a curette. If the glands are 
removed entire, temporary drainage with rubber tissue will suffice 
and the greater part of the incision may be sutured. If the 
glands are merely incised, or incised and curetted, or if the ab¬ 
scess at the time of operation has already extended beyond the 
capsule of the gland, gauze drainage through an unsutured in¬ 
cision should be maintained for some days until granulation takes 
place. 

The treatment outlined for the deep suppurating glands is the 
same as that employed for tuberculosis of the axillary glands. In 
the latter case there is, of course, an additional reason for the 
complete removal of the glands in that the seeds of disease "which 
they contain may spread to other glands or other organs. 

Eczema. —The hand and forearm are favorite seats of eczema, 
which occurs in all its forms—erythematous, papular, vesicular, 
and pustular. When of a chronic character, scales and crusts and 
fissures are well shown, particularly upon the palm. Besides what¬ 
ever form of debility ^ may be the predisposing cause of the 
eczema, if the lesions are located upon the hand 01 arm, theie is 
almost always a well marked local cause such as exposure to heat 
or cold, contact with strong chemicals, including laundry soaps and 
washing powders, irritating sand, etc. The history will generally 
indicate the diagnosis, which will be confirmed by the presence of 
the four cardinal symptoms—erythema, serous exudation, infiltia- 



432 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


tion of the underlying skin, and itching. Eczema must be differ¬ 
entiated from the following diseases: 

Urticaria occurs in wheals scattered indiscriminately over vari¬ 
ous surfaces of the body. 

Erysipelas gives a continuous blush, which spreads constantly 
from the edge. This and its constitutional symptoms sufficiently 
distinguish it from eczema. 

Dermatitis from poison ivy closely resembles acute eczema. 
Its distinguishing characteristics are a history of exposure to the 
plant, the acute spread of the lesions, and their transference from 
one part of the body to another by contact, as from the hands to 
the face, neck, or genitals. 

Tkeatment. —Applications useful in the treatment of eczema 
have been mentioned on page 58. If the best results are to be 
obtained, the irritating causes must, of course, he done away 
with. 

Sometimes a syphilitic eczema of the finger, especially of the 
forefinger or thumb, will persist long after all other signs of the 
disease have disappeared. The constitutional treatment should 
be continued under such circumstances, even though the patient 
may have taken medicine regularly for the usual period of two 
years or more. In addition, local applications, such as mercurial 
ointment, Lassars paste, or strong preparations of salicylic acid 
should be applied during the night, in order to cause the old skin 
to scale off and give place to a newer, healthier growth. 

Ulcer from Vaccination. —In normal vaccination the pus¬ 
tules dry up and the resulting scab remains in place until the 
repair of the skin is complete. If germs of various sorts are 
allowed to enter the lesion, at the time of vaccination, or afterward 
by a premature removal of the scab, the inflammation and loss of 
tissue may he extreme. It is no unusual thing to find an ulcer 
on the arm or leg of a child an inch in diameter and one-third of 
an inch deep. Such an ulcer is usually very slow in healing, and 
should be stimulated with nitrate of silver. The ulcer may be 
painted with a ten per cent solution of nitrate of silver, or gauze 
wet with a four per cent solution may be kept over the ulcer. 
This dressing should be moistened four times a dav with water 
and changed every day until granulation is well Established. (Com¬ 
pare the treatment of ulcers of the leg, Chapter XVIII.) 


GONORRHEAL ARTHRITIS 


433 


Articular Rheumatism. —The less acute inflammations of 
the upper extremity are for the most part located in the joints. 
A complete study of joint affections is manifestly impossible in a 
work of this character, hut it is worth while to consider the sur¬ 
gical aspects of articular rheumatism, gonorrheal arthritis, arthritis 
deformans, gout, syphilis, and tuberculosis. 

The onset of articular rheumatism is sudden, with fever and its 
accompanying symptoms. One or more joints are diffusely swollen, 
and very tender and painful. Different joints may be involved at 
the same time, or one after the other. The affected joint contains 
little fluid. The administration of salicylates internally seems in 
some cases to hasten the restoration to normal of the affected 
joints. In other cases it seems to have no effect in this way. Pain, 
redness, and extreme tenderness usually disappear in a few days. 
Some swelling, and limitation of motion by tenderness and adhe¬ 
sions, persist for a longer time, possibly for weeks. 

Local Treatment.— Twenty or thirty drops of guaiacol 
should he sprinkled on a layer of cotton. This is wrapped around 
the joint, covered with oiled silk, and bandaged in place. The 
joint should be immobilized by a splint or sling. The initial 
pain is much relieved in this manner. In a few days hot fomen¬ 
tations or baking are indicated. When pain has disappeared and 
the swelling is diminishing, massage and active and passive mo¬ 
tion of the joint is advisable. At a still later period it is some¬ 
times desirable to give an anesthetic in order to break up adhesions. 
This should never he done until all signs of acute inflammation 
have passed. 

During the painful stage of rheumatism of the wrist or fingers, 
the hand and fingers should he constantly extended. This position 
is favorable to subsequent treatment of any adhesions which form, 
for it is much easier to gradually flex a stiff, extended joint than to 
extend one which is adherent in the position of flexion. There¬ 
fore, if these joints are flexed or partly flexed, when the patient is 
seen for the first time, a splint should he applied, to prevent in¬ 
crease of flexion, and each day a slight extension of the part 
should he made and the splint reapplied in the better position. 

Gonorrheal Arthritis. —In about ten per cent of the cases 
of gonorrhea some joint is involved. This occurs in the third or 
fourth week of the disease, or still later. This lesion is often 



434 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


spoken of as a monarticular one, and so it frequently is; but the 
fact should not be lost sight of that in more than half of the cases 
of gonorrheal arthritis, more than one joint is involved. However, 
the inflammation does not skip from joint to joint, as in rheuma¬ 
tism, but pursues a tedious course of four weeks or more in each 
joint that is affected. Other distinguishing marks are the effu¬ 
sion into the joint cavity, edema of the soft parts, involvement of 
any bursae or tendon sheaths in the immediate vicinity of the 
joint, and the moderate character of the pain and tenderness. 

The treatment is similar to that for articular rheumatism: rest 
on a splint, with hot or cold applications to relieve pain during 
the first stage; then baking, followed by massage, and passive 
and active motions. Restoration of function is usually complete. 

Deforming Arthritis. —This disease is also known by the 
names osteitis deformans, rheumatoid arthritis, and others. It is 
characterized by slight swelling, pain, and tenderness of the vari¬ 
ous joints of the body, and alterations of the articular ends of 
the bones due to deposits of lime salts. The range of motion in 
the joints is thereby greatly interfered with, and various deformi¬ 
ties are produced, such as flexion, overextension, or lateral dis¬ 
placements. 

When advanced, this disease is unmistakable; in its beginning 
it may be mistaken for articular rheumatism or gout. It has not 
the fever nor pain of the former, nor the chalky skin deposits, 
and usually not the nephritic symptoms of the latter. 

Local treatment consists in maintaining and, if possible, in¬ 
creasing the range of motion of the joints during the periods of 
quiescence of the disease. The affected limbs should be baked to 
300° F., if the patient can stand it, and then vigorously massaged 
either manually or, still better, by mechanical vibration. Active 
motion should be encouraged for the sake of both joints and mus¬ 
cles. The use of splints is contraindicated, since immobilization in 
these cases reduces still further the range of motion. Sometimes 
increased motion may be obtained by manipulation under an anes¬ 
thetic, but such increased freedom is not generally permanent. In 
this, as in most joint adhesions, a slight, gentle motion, many 
times repeated, has a far greater permanent good effect in increas¬ 
ing the range of motion of the joint than an occasional violent 
motion. 


SYPHILIS 


435 


Gout. —While early attacks of gout are often confined to the 
metatarsophalangeal joint of the great toe, they are common 
enough in some of the smaller joints of the upper extremity. The 
family history, and symptoms of gout manifested by the heart, 
kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract will usually indicate the true 
diagnosis. The affected joint (or joints) is swollen, hot, red, pain¬ 
ful, and tender, similar to the joint affected by articular rheuma¬ 
tism. Other joints should be examined for evidences of previous 
attacks, and uratic deposits looked for in the skin of the hands, 
feet, and ears. 

The extreme tenderness and pain usually last only a day or two. 
During this time pain may be lessened by guaiacol applied on cot¬ 
ton and covered with oiled silk, or ice cloths may be applied, or the 
patient may find very hot applications more comforting. The best 
and simplest way to apply moist heat is to wrap the joint with hot 
moist compresses, cover these with oiled silk, and then to increase 
and keep up the heat by laying hot bottles or bags on either side of 
the limb. These can be changed from time to time. In this way 
the temperature can readily be kept as high as the patient can bear 
it, and the inner dressing need not be touched. If it dries, the 
protective should be opened, and hot water poured upon the com¬ 
presses. Various counter-irritants are also employed. Tincture 
of iodine is the cleanest, and perhaps as good as any. When the 
attack has passed over, massage is beneficial, as these patient! 
usually take too little exercise. 

If the gouty deposit of urates is large, or is so situated that L 
will interfere with the use of the member, or if it is very painful, 
it should be removed. This can easily be done under a local anes¬ 
thetic. The wound heals as promptly as any clean wound. An 
isolated nodule in an unusual situation has been mistaken for a 
tumor. 

Syphilis. —Lesions of syphilis at every stage are found in the 
hand and arm. The primary sore or chancre has several times 
developed upon the forefinger of a physician after examination 
of a syphilitic patient. A chancre may also develop after contact 
of the hand with the teeth of a syphilitic patient. Such a case 
is illustrated in Figure 215. 

Late lesions of syphilis are often found in the upper extremity. 
Eczema of the fingers is mentioned on page 431. Gumma of the 
3(? 


436 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


skin forming an nicer (Figs. 216 and 217) has the usual char¬ 
acteristics of gumma in other parts of the body, and demands the 
usual treatment. (See p. 61.) 



Fig. 215. —Primary Lesion of Syphilis Developing in a Wound of the Finger 
Made by Human Teeth. Photograph eleven weeks after injury. 

Syphilitic Dactylitis.—When the soft tissues of the joints of 
the lingers become gummatous, or a gumma forms in one of the 
phalanges, the condition is called syphilitic dactylitis. The af¬ 
fected portion of the finger is spindle-shaped or spherical, the skin 



Fig. 216. Syphilitic Ulcer of the Hand, of Four Months’ Duration. Patient 

a male aged thirty-seven years. 






Fig. 217. — The Same Hand as Shown in Fig. 216, After Four Weeks of Treat¬ 
ment BY IODID AND MERCURY. 



Fig. 



218. —Chronic Inflammation of 
Duration; Probably Syphilitic. 


Hand with Sinuses of Two Years’ 

Patient a man aged fifty-five years. 






438 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


is dusky red and sliiny, the underlying tissues are firm or, later, 
boggy, and flexion of the joint is interfered with by the swelling, 
although abnormal lateral motion is possible. The amount of pain 
varies in different cases, and may be wholly wanting. After some 



Fig. 219. —Syphilis of Left Wrist, Left Forefinger, and Right Ring-finger, 
Commencing One Year Ago in the Ring-finger, a Part of which was 
Amputated by a Physician. Patient a woman aged thirty-six years. 


weeks or months the skin may break and allow the discharge of 
characteristic syrupy fluid. The discharge afterward becomes 
purulent (Fig. 218). The formation of sinuses may not take 
place for months, or recovery may occur without any sinuses being 
formed. In other cases there is necrosis of bone which keeps open 
the sinuses. 

Differential diagnosis with tuberculous dactylitis, sarcoma, and 
chronic purulent synovitis may be extremely difficult. An exact 
history of the case, a radiograph, a Wassermann blood test, and 
the test of two weeks’ treatment with iodid of potash, with the 
finger on a splint, will almost always dispel the doubt. Amputation 
should never be resorted to in syphilitic cases, as recovery is almost 
always perfect if internal treatment is persisted in. Moreover, 






TUBERCULOSIS OF TENDON SHEATHS 


439 


amputation is no preventive of recurrence (Fig. 219), even in the 
stump of the amputated finger. 

Tuberculosis of Tendon Sheaths —There is also a chronic 
inflammation of the tendon sheaths, due to the tubercle bacillus, 
at least in most cases. Either the flexor or extensor tendons may 
be involved (Figs. 220 and 221). The sheaths of the tendons are 
gradually distended with fluid which is at first serous, but which 
later contains rice bodies. These are fibrinous bodies about as 
large and about as slippery as wet melon seeds. They can often 
be detected by palpation, and can often be made to slip back and 
forth under the annular ligament from one relaxed portion of the 



Fig. 220.— Tuberculosis of Flexor Tendon Sheaths of Hand. Especial dis¬ 
tention of sheath of middle finger; sinus in palm. Patient a boy aged six years. 

sheath to the other. The condition may remain about the same 
for months, causing little or no pain, and no swelling of the 
tissues outside of the sheaths; or the tubercular process may be 
more active, giving pain and edema, with a discharge of pus and 
detritus into the cavity of the sheath, or through the skin. 





440 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


Treatment. —The only treatment to be advised is the com¬ 
plete removal of the affected tendon- sheaths by dissection under a 

general anesthetic. 
If this operation is 
performed at an 
early stage, the 
wounds may be su¬ 
tured, and will usu¬ 
ally unite primar¬ 
ily. Slight active 
motions should be 
begun in a week to 
prevent permanent 
adhesions. There 
is in many cases 
full restoration of 
function. Opera¬ 
tions performed in 
the suppurative stage, or after the disease has extended beyond the 
synovial membrane, do not have so favorable a result. 



Fig. 221. Tenosynovitis, Probably Tubercular, of 
Five Months’ Duration. Patient a man aged forty- 
nine years. 


Tuberculosis of Joints. —In tuberculous arthritis of the up¬ 
per extremity the disease may begin in the synovial membrane, or, 
more commonly, in the extremity of one of the bones forming the 
joint. In the latter case it usually extends into the joint, but not 
necessarily so, as it may extend in the other direction, and when 
suppuration takes place the pus may break through the skin with¬ 
out having entered the joint. In the usual case, however, the 
joint is early involved, and the tuberculous arthritis which then 
exists must be differentiated from the various other chronic in¬ 
flammations of a joint. 

Symptoms. The early symptoms of tuberculous arthritis are 
local heat, swelling, limitation of motion, partial loss of function, 
usually pain and tenderness, and muscular atrophy. This last is 
a symptom which occurs early in the disease, and is almost always 
demonstrable when the doctor first sees the patient. Muscular 
spasm, which is so prominent a symptom in tuberculosis of the 
joints of the lower extremity, is not so easily produced in the joints 

of the upper extremity. These various symptoms are worth further 
attention. 






TUBERCULOSIS OF JOINTS 


441 


Local heat is readily determined by comparing the affected 
joint with other parts of the same limb, and with the correspond¬ 
ing joint of the opposite limb. 

Swelling should be measured circumferentially in inches or 
centimeters, not guessed at. It is a good plan to measure at the 
same time the circumferences of both limbs a .certain distance 
above and below the plane of the affected joint, to determine the 
presence of atrophy. 

Limitation of motion , both active and passive, is ascertained 
by testing the various normal motions of the joint, one after the 
other, to the fullest possible extent. A goniometer is an instru- 



Fig. 222. —Diagram to Aid the Eye in Estimating the Range of Motion in a 

Joint. 


ment to measure the range of motion, but this can be estimated 
with sufficient accuracy by the eye, if one bears in mind that two 
bones at right angles to each other make an angle of 90 degrees ; 
in the same line they make an angle of ISO degrees; while mid¬ 
way between a right angle and a straight line they make an angle 
of 135 degrees. If the quadrant in question is divided into thirds, 
the angles will be 120 degrees and 150 degrees 222). 







442 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE ARM AND HAND 


Loss of function may be due to limitation of motion or to loss 
of muscular power, or to the pain which use of the joint elicits. 
It should he noted in the history in exact terms for future com¬ 
parison. 

Pain and tenderness vary much in different patients. Pre¬ 
sumably they are greater when there is an unruptured focus of 
disease in a hone than when such a focus has ruptured or when 
the disease is exclusively in the synovia or other soft tissues. 

A radiograph shows the tuberculous bone to be distended and 
decalcified. 

At a later stage there is often fluctuation , due to fluid within 
or outside of the joint; and there may he abscesses or smuses. 



Fig. 223. Tuberculosis of the Wrist, One Year, with Sinus. Patient a man 

aged twenty-nine years. 


Discharge of pus through a sinus, of course, reduces the swelling. 
The sinus often becomes blocked and the swelling and other acute 
symptoms reappear until relief is again obtained by discharge 
through the same or another sinus (Fig. 223). If a probe will 
follow such a sinus it will either enter the joint or touch diseased 
bone. 

I uberculosis of the upper extremity is rare in both childhood 
and in adult life. The statistics of different observers vary, but it 
is probably safe to say that of all cases of tuberculosis of joints 
of the extremities, not more than two per cent fall to the shoulder- 



OSTEOMYELITIS 


443 


joint, two or three per cent to the elbow-joint, and less than one 
per cent to the wrist-joint and hones of the hand, giving a total 
of about live per cent for all the joints of the upper extremity. 

Tuberculosis in the hand itself, or of the lingers, may he situ¬ 
ated in the joints, or it may involve the shaft of one of the longer 
hones. In the latter case a fusiform swelling is given to the 
affected part, the center of the swelling being midway between the 
joints; whereas, in arthritis of whatever nature, the center of the 
swelling is opposite the plane of the joint. In syphilis there may 
be either type of swelling. 

Treatment. —The first treatment of tuberculous arthritis is to 
keep the joint at rest by splints or plaster of Paris bandage. If 
fluid accumulates and causes pain or distends the skin, it should 
be evacuated through a small incision. 

Injections of iodoform (ten per cent in glycerin) and other 
substances into the tissues around the diseased foci have been favor¬ 
ably spoken of by some surgeons, but their use is often disap¬ 
pointing. 

If necrosis of a hone develops, the necrotic portion must, of 
course, he removed. Suitable splints should be worn until recovery 
is complete to limit the amount of the deformity as far as possible. 

The tendency of tuberculosis of a joint in infancy and child¬ 
hood is often toward recovery. Such a favorable outcome may he 
hoped for in adults, hut it is far less frequent. If a reasonable time 
has been given to simpler measures and the condition of the patient 
does not improve, resection or amputation must he considered not 
only to terminate the local process, hut to save the patient from 
extension of the disease to some other part of the body, these are 
operations fully discussed in books upon major surgery. The re¬ 
sults of resection are often not much worse than those which follow 
a spontaneous cure, since more or less disability often remains. 
Hence, in an adult one should not put off too long the question of 
operation. It is hardly necessary to add that whatever the local 
treatment, constitutional hygienic and dietetic treatment is even 
more important. Out-of-door life will cure nearly all cases of 
joint tuberculosis in children. 

Osteomyelitis.—Inflammation of hone, without or with 
necrosis, may follow suppuration in the wound of a compound 
fracture (p. 386), or in a joint which has been wounded (p. 423). 



444 


inflammations of the arm and hand 


There is also a suppurative inflammation of bone, situated usually 
in the shaft or epiphysis, coming on without such evident trau¬ 
matic origin, and known as osteomyelitis. In a well marked case 
there is a high fever, a chill, and intense pain in the bone, followed 
by convulsions or delirium, for the disease is generally in childhood 
or adolescence. I here are also milder cases, with less pain and 
slight fever. Pain is invariably increased when the affected bone 
is jarred. After the pus distends or breaks through the perios¬ 
teum, there are the usual signs of abscess in the soft parts. 

Osteomyelitis is about five times more common in the lower 
extremity than in the upper. Its early recognition is of the great¬ 
est importance. I ree exit should be given to the pus by an in¬ 
cision through the periosteum, and if the pus is not then reached 
the bone should be opened with drill or chisel. Such prompt treat¬ 
ment will often save the life of the patient, and may even permit 
recovery without necrosis of the bone, though this is rare. 


CHAPTER XVI 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

TUMORS 

Ganglion.—There is a cystic tumor often found in the upper 
extremity, and especially about the wrist, which is called a gan¬ 
glion. It consists of a fibrous capsule, intimately connected with 
the capsule of a joint, or with a tendon sheath, and a synovial 
lining, and it is filled with a thin, clear, sirupy fluid. Its cavity 
may or may not he continuous with the cavity of the joint or 
tendon sheath. The origin of a ganglion is a matter of dispute. 
Some observers believe that it is a true hernia of the joint capsule, 
and others assert that it is a fibrous tumor, growing from the 
fibrous capsule of the joint or tendon sheath, the center of which 
undergoes degeneration, and contains fluid; and that this degen¬ 
eration may extend until the cavity of the joint is opened. 






446 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


The most common situation for a ganglion is the back of the 
wrist, in the space between the tendon of the long extensor of 
the thumb and the long extensor of the index-finger, where it is 
intimately connected with the capsule of the joint. It frequently 
follows some overexertion, and the patient will say that he felt 
something give in the wrist-joint. A few days later a little puffi¬ 
ness will appear, which will increase in size and hardness as time 
goes on. Such a tumor may remain for months without much 
alteration, or it may gradually increase in size while tending to 
weaken the joint and to make its use painful. There is usually 
very little pain in the tumor when the hand is kept at rest. The 
overlying skin is freely movable and is not altered in appearance 
(Fig. 224). 

If left to itself a ganglion tends to increase slowly in size 
until it is an inch or more in diameter. 

Treatment. —The old treatment for a ganglion was to 
make it tense by flexing the hand, and then to rupture it by a 
sharp blow with a heavy book. If the blow succeeds in breaking 
the sac the fluid contents escape into the surrounding tissue. 
Pressure made by means of a coin and a strap of adhesive plaster 
for a couple of weeks may cause the sac walls- to grow together 
and so to obliterate the cavity. Usually the cavity refills and the 
patient is as bad off as ever. It often happens also that the wall 



Fig. 225. Ganglion of the Wrist. Lateral view to show the elevation of the 

tumor. 

vf the sac is so firm that it will not rupture, or that the amount 
of fluid contained in the tumor is so slight that its size is not 
much diminished by its removal. A more rational treatment con¬ 
sists in the complete removal of the tumor through a longitudinal 
incision, the connection witli the joint being closed, if it exists, 
by a ligature or a suture. This operation may be performed with a 



GANGLION 


447 


local anesthetic, as the tissues are readily anesthetized. A longi¬ 
tudinal incision is then made in the skin, about half an inch 
longer than the diameter of the tumor (Fig. 225). The tissues 
are carefully divided until the fibrous capsule of the ganglion is 
reached. The top and sides of the ganglion are then fully ex¬ 
posed by blunt dissection (Fig. 226). If the ganglion is a small 


one, and has a slender pedicle, this blunt dissection may he con¬ 
tinued all around and beneath it until it is lifted from its bed, 
and the pedicle is ready for the ligature. In most cases, however, 
time is saved, and the dissection is rendered easier and less pain¬ 
ful by opening the ganglion and evacuating its contents as soon 
as the sides of the capsule have been dissected free. It should 
then he split throughout its length so that the surgeon may obtain 
a clear view of its base and attachments. ^Nothing is to he gained, 
and needless injury may he inflicted by the attempt to remove it 
before it is opened, for the dissection of the base is the most diffi¬ 
cult part of the operation, and the only part which it is hard 
to make absolutely painless. The whole of the sac should he dis¬ 
sected away, and its attachment ligated and divided (Fig. 227). 
If the sac is closely attached to hone, ligaments, or tendons, the 
outer portion of the sac may he left as long as its lining is removed. 
A ganglion sometimes recurs after a careful excision. 

Another method of treatment which often yields a prompt and 
painless cure is the injection into the sac of the ganglion of twenty 
or thirty minims of a mixture of equal parts of crystals of chloral 
hydrate and carbolic acid. These two crystals when mixed imme¬ 
diately form a fluid sufficiently thin for injection through an oidi- 



448 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

nary hypodermic needle. Before making the injection it is desira¬ 
ble to withdraw the greater part of the contents of the ganglion. 
Sometimes the contents are fluid; more often they are like jelly. 
Hence the aspiration should be made with a needle of large cali- 



Fig. 227. —Ganglion of Whist, Showing the Ligation of the Sac. 


her, and the suction must be supplemented by strong pressure upon 
the sac. The injection of the carbolic mixture causes little if any 
pain. There may be some edema for a couple of days, but soon 
the sac shrinks, and may entirely disappear after a single injec¬ 
tion. Unfortunately, the cure thus easily obtained is not always 
permanent. 

Another method of treatment is the insertion of a needle by 
means of which numerous punctures are made through the sac, 
and its lining is scratched, and indeed the sac itself is torn to 
pieces as far as possible. This procedure should be followed by 
continuous pressure for several days to obliterate the space in 
which the fluid was contained. 

Aneurism. An arterial aneurism, the result of a punctured 
wound, is sometimes seen in the hand or wrist. When an aneu¬ 
rism due wholly to internal causes develops in the upper extrem¬ 
ity? it is likely to be found in the brachial artery. 

These tumors are small, smooth, elastic, compressible, and 
pulsating. They can be mistaken for some tumor overlying a 
normal vessel. Thus a ganglion of the wrist may lie on the" radial 




VARIX 


449 


artery and transmit the pulsation from the vessel, just as a cold 
abscess may transmit pulsation from an underlying artery. A 
careful examination will differentiate this transmitted pulsation 
from a true expansile pulsation. 

The best treatment for aneurism of the upper extremity is dis¬ 
section and ligation of the vessel involved both above and below 
the aneurism with chromic catgut. The blood-supply is so free 
that gangrene need not be feared. The wound should be com¬ 
pletely sutured. 

Varix. One or more veins may be dilated, forming either a 
single smooth swelling (Fig. 228) or a more or less dilated and 



Fig. 228.— Nevus of Hand, of Seven Years’ Duration. Patient a girl aged 
ten years. The tumor disappeared completely when the hand was held up. 


tortuous one (Fig. 229). Such a dilation is called a venous 
aneurism or a varix. If such a tumor connects with an artery, 
it may pulsate faintly. A characteristic sign is its almost com- 







450 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 



plete disappearance on steady compression, combined with eleva¬ 
tion of the arm, and its reappearance as soon as the pressure is 
removed. It is also softly fluctuating and gives a bluish shade 
to the overlying skin. 

The treatment is the double ligation of the vessels with or 
without removal of the dilated portion. If a removal of the ves¬ 
sels is decided upon, 
it is well to place 
an Esmarch bandage 
around the arm be¬ 
fore operation, and to 
ligate all visible cut 
vessels before remov¬ 
ing the bandage, as 
bleeding from these 
dilated veins is very 
free. If an Esmarch 
bandage is not em¬ 
ployed, the dissection 
and ligation should be 
carried on from below 
upward in order to 
avoid cutting and li- 
e;atin«; the same vessel 
several times. 

Inclusion Cyst. 
—Sebaceous cysts do 
not occur in the hand, 
but similar cysts, lined 
with epithelium, are 
found in the skin of 

* 

the joalm. They are thought to be due to inclusion of epithelial 
cells, either during the embryonic period or postnatally, as a 
result of traumatism (Eig. 230). A cyst of this character is 
smooth, tense, possibly fluctuating, and intimately attached to the 
skin, which cannot be moved over it. It most nearly resembles a 
fibroma in physical characteristics. It should be removed entirely. 
This can usually be performed in such a manner that the wound 
can be closed by sutures. If not, the resulting small granulating 


Fig. 229.- 


-Extensive Tortuous Varices of Hand 
and Arm. 




LIPOMA 


451 


wound will soon become covered by growth of epithelium from 
its edges. 



Fig. 230. —Inclusion Cyst of Palm. 

Lipoma. —This is a common tumor in the upper extremity, 
where it occurs both singly and in groups. A simple lipoma (Fig. 
231), having the characteristics already described on page 137, 
when it occurs in the arm, can hardly be mistaken for anything 



Fig. 231. —Simple Lipoma of Arm. 


else; in the hand it may be confused with fibroma, or one of the 
other tumors mentioned below. The technique of its removal is 
given on page 137. 














452 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

Multiple Lipomata.—Lipomata of the arm, occurring in groups, 
appear to be hereditary. The tumors are situated in the subcu¬ 
taneous plane of fatty tissue, and can he easily removed; hut as 
they do no harm, and evince no tendency to malignancy, their re¬ 
moval is not indicated except upon esthetic grounds. 

Fibroma and Fibrolipoma. —Fibroma occurs as a smooth, 
flabby, or firm tumor, either in or closely attached to the skin. 
It grows slowly, usually without pain. It is not compressible, 
as a varix is; it has a uniform consistence, and is covered by nor¬ 
mal skin (Figs. 232, 233, and 234). A tumor of this character 



Fig. 232.— Fibroma of Middle Finger. Duration six years. Thought to have de¬ 
veloped from the sting of some insect. Patient a man aged forty-five years. 


often gives a distinct wave of fluctuation, which is very decep¬ 
tive. There is usually this difference, however: Fluid in a firm 
sac, if pressed upon, will give a much quicker fluctuation wave 
than when no outside pressure is applied. Outside pressure upon 
a solid tumor, such as a soft fibroma, has little effect upon its 
fluctuation wave, since the pressure is not at once distributed 
equally in all directions. 

A fibroma may contain fat, and is then often spoken of as a 
fibrolipoma. This makes a softer tumor than a pure fibroma. 
I he differentiation between fibroma and lipoma is not very im¬ 
portant, since the prognosis and treatment are similar. 

It is. however, very important to differentiate fibroma and 











FIBROMA AND FIBROLIPOMA 


453 


sarcoma. At an early stage of the latter this may he impossible 
except by microscopic examination. Both may he soft or hard. 



Fig. 233.— Same Subject as Fig. 232. Radiograpli showing the bone not to be 
affected. Compare Figs. 236 and 237 on pp. 455 and 456. 


The safe plan is to remove every growing tumor, and to subject 
it to microscopic examination. The wound should he closed by 



Fig. 234. —Fibroma of Hand. 









454 TUMORS and deformities of the arm and hand 


suture, in order to await the report of the pathologist after his 
examination of numerous sections of the hardened tumor. In 
such a case it would he unwise to base the extent of operation upon 
an examination of frozen sections; for the similarity of fibroma 
to some forms of sarcoma is so great that a positive decision is 
difficult, even from the verv best sections. 

If it is found that the tumor is a fibroma no further operation 
is necessary, and the patient has been spared the unnecessary loss 
of time. If it proves to be a sarcoma, a further extensive removal 
of adjacent tissue will be necessary. It has been my experience 
that patients will almost invariably submit to a second operation, 
should such be found necessary, if the exact plan of procedure is 
explained to them before the first operation. 

In some cases a fibroma may be mistaken for the lesions of 
tuberculosis or syphilis. Such a mistake is unlikely, and should 
soon be corrected by the progress of the inflammatory disease. 



Fig. 235. —Papilloma of Wrist; Fibrolipoma. 

A ganglion should be differentiated by the fact that it is cov¬ 
ered by movable normal skin. The skin over a fibroma is closely 
attached to the tumor. 

An inclusion cyst is to be known by its development in the 
palm, by its fluid fluctuation wave, and by its different consistency 
near its margin and at its center. 




NEUROFIBROMA 


455 


Finally, a fibroma may be so hard as to simulate an osteoma. 
The latter is of course immovable in the bone, while the fibroma 
is movable, at least to a short distance. Radiographs will clearly 
differentiate the two tumors (see Figs. 237, p. 456, and 239, 
p. 457). 

Papilloma. —A fibrous and fatty tumor—in other words, a 
fibrolipoma—if pedicled, is called a papilloma. Such a tumor 



Fig. 236. —Osteoma of Finger. 


is covered with normal or slightly hypertrophied skin, and it is 
attached to the body by a neck smaller than the mass of the tumor 
(Fig. 235). This type of tumor is commoner upon the trunk 
than upon the extremities (see p. 185). 

Neurofibroma. —Contusion or wound of a nerve may lead 
to the development of a fibrous tumor in the nerve trunk. This 




456 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


form of tumor reaches its maximum growth in the stumps of 
nerves after amputation, and especially in the lower extremity. It 
is also found in the palmar nerves of the hand, under the circum¬ 
stances mentioned, and sometimes causes the patient great pain. 



Fig. 237. Same Subject as Fig. 236. Radiograph of osteoma. Note commencing 
similar growths in the first phalanx of the same finger, and of the adjoining 
finger. 

The best treatment is dissection and removal of the visibly affected 
portion of the nerve, and a clean division of the trunk of the 
nerve, a little above the incision in the skin. This is to lessen 
the risk of pressure of its stump in the scar. Recurrence some¬ 
times takes place. 

Osteoma. Osteoma of a small bone has the same character¬ 
istics as osteoma of a large bone, viz., it is a hard painless tumor 




OSTEOMA 


457 


of slow growth, covered by normal movable skin, while it is 
firmly attached to the bone from which it grows (Figs. 236 and 
23< ). It may he mistaken for a periosteal sarcoma, or a dense 
fibrolipoma. I he former has usually a more rapid growth, and 
the latter is less hard, and always somewhat movable on the under- 
hone. In such doubtful cases a radiograph is a necessity 
(Figs. 238 and 239). The radiograph of this osteoma is most 
instructive on another account. Careful inspection will show 



Fig. 238. —Fibrolipoma of Finger. Fig. 239. —Radiograph of Fibrolipoma 


Same subject as Fig. 239. of Finger Showing Normal Bones. 

that two similar tumors were developing in the first phalanges 
of the second and third digits. Their presence was not suspected 
until the radiographs were made, but one of them was palpable 
when attention had been called to it. 









458 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


An osteoma should be removed. The skin is incised longi¬ 
tudinally at a distance from the tendons, and the osteoma exposed 
by dissection and retraction of the soft parts. The tumor should 
then be chiseled away. It is not necessary to remove the bone 
from which an osteoma springs, unless there is a suspicion of 
sarcoma; and even in that case it is better to await the result of 
the microscopical examination when one can act intelligently and 
as radically as the facts warrant. 

Granuloma. —Granulations may grow above the surface of 
a wound, and prevent the epidermis from growing over the wound. 
Such exuberant granulations are spoken of as proud flesh. They 
may be cut away with scissors and the free bleeding stopped with 
pressure for a minute, or they may be burned down by touching 

them with solid nitrate of sil¬ 
ver. If of long standing in a 
small wound, they become firm¬ 
er in texture and pedicled in 
shape, and present somewhat 
the appearance of a sarcoma. 
Such a mass is called a granu¬ 
loma (Fig. 240). 

A wart is a tumor of the 
epidermis, of papillary struc¬ 
ture and usually elevated above 
the level of the normal skin. 
Warts usually develop in the 
skin of the hands, and during 
childhood, but they are also 
found in other situations and in 
adult life. Their cause is not 
known. If a wart is so situated 
that it can develop freely it may 
attain a height of one-eiglitli of 
an inch, and a diameter of one- 
third of an inch or more. The 
top is flat and shows numerous 
clefts between more actively 
growing points. This gives the surface of an old wart something 
of a cauliflower appearance (Fig. 241). If situated where it is 








WART 


459 


irritated, for example, on the knuckle or along the nail, a wart 
is apt to crack and bleed and to give some pain. If situated under 
very tough epidermis, for example on the palmar side of the 
fingers or hand, the wart is often confined in its growth, so that 
its papillary character 
is less evident, and it 
appears more as a hard, 
tender tumor covered 
by thick epithelium 
and rising little above 
the skin surface. If 
the surface epithelium 
is shaved off, its true 
papillary structure will 
be evident. 

Treatment. —The 
warts that appear in 
large numbers on the 
backs of the hands of 
children, usually disap¬ 
pear spontaneously, or 
after some local treat¬ 
ment. Single warts oc¬ 
curring in adult life 
are not so easily dis¬ 
lodged. They may be removed by the knife (it is only necessary 
to remove the whole thickness of epidermis—not the corium), or 
by caustics. Monochloracetic acid is the best for this purpose. A 
small crystal should be picked up with a moistened toothpick and 
placed on the wart. The moisture will fuse the crystal without 
diluting it unnecessarily. 

After three minutes, or sooner if the patient feels that it 
burns, it should be wiped away. In three days the burned tissue 
should be pared away and a drop of acid be applied to the living 
tissue beneath. This process should be repeated as often as is 
necessary until the wart, including its growing base, has been 
completely destroyed and removed. Too frequent applications of 
acid will make the part sore; too infrequent applications will allow 
the wart to grow in the intervals enough to make up for the par- 







460 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


tial destruction. A weaker caustic, suck as a saturated solution 
of bichromate of potash, may be painted on every day. This 
treatment is more suitable to place in the hands of the patient 
himself. Treatment by acid, if judiciously carried out, is pain¬ 
less, avoids the use of any dressing, and the permanent loss of 
any skin. Treatment by the knife is quicker, but it necessitates 
a dressing and usually the loss of a bit of skin. If the wart is 
covered by thick epidermis (palm of hand, sole of foot), it can still 
be removed by acid, if the rules given are persistently carried out. 
Here, however, the two methods of treatment may be happily 
combined by injecting cocain and shelling out the wart with a 
curette, and cauterizing the base of the wound with acid before 
the anesthesia is over. 

Epithelioma in the upper extremity usually develops on the 
back of the hand in an individual more than sixty years old. It 



Fig. 242. Metastatic Carcinoma of the Bones of the Hand from Carcinoma 

of the Breast. 


may follow an injury, although usually there is no history of any 
traumatism other than the knocks and bruises to which the hand 
of a worker is frequently subjected. 

More often it develops in one of the scaly patches so common 




EPITHELIOMA 


461 


on tlie hands of the aged. It is generally of very slow growth, 
appearing for months as a shallow nicer which bleeds easily and 
may heal in part but not wholly; later the growing margin is more 



Fig. 243. —The Site of the Original Tumor of Which the Tumors Shown in 

Fig. 242 are Metastases. 


evident. Metastases do not form early, and it takes a long time 
for the growth to extend below the skin. Therefore, in most cases 
the removal of an elliptical piece of skin containing the ulcer will 
give a permanent cure. (For the details of such an operation see 
Chapter XXIII.) 

In giving a prognosis it is well to remember that any other 
scaly patch may undergo similar degeneration, so that this risk 
must be added to the slight risk of a recurrence after ex¬ 
cision. 

Carcinoma in the hand—a metastatic tumor from carcinoma 
in some other part of the body—is a rarer form of malignant 
growth. Such a case is shown in Figure 242, and the original 
tumor in Figure 243. There is, of course, no treatment for such 

\ 






462 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

metastatic tumors, unless pain or ulceration should make amputa¬ 
tion desirable. Usually these symptoms are obscured by the more 
serious symptoms of the primary growth or metastatic tumors in 
more vital parts of the body. 

Sarcoma. —A sarcoma is a connective tissue tumor, and is 
therefore found in every part of the body. In the upper extrem¬ 
ity it usually originates in the skin or in one of the bones. In the 
former situation (Fig. 244), it must be differentiated from fibroma 
and fibrolipoma, and also from the lesions of syphilis and tuber- 



Fig. 244.— Tumor of Hand, Said to Have Existed Ten Years. The lesion was 
considered tuberculous, until the pathologist pronounced it spindle-celled sar¬ 
coma. r l he patient was a man aged thirty years. 


culosis. Sarcoma of a bone may be mistaken for osteoma or 
enchondroma^ and also for the lesions of tuberculosis and syphilis. 
It is true that mistakes in diagnosis are most likely to be made 
at an early stage of the growth, but it is just at that time that a 
complete removal of the growth is possible; therefore, an early 
exact diagnosis is most important. If this cannot be made certain 
in any other way, a section of the growth should be removed for 
microscopical examination. 

The only treatment for a patient with sarcoma of the upper 
extremity is thorough removal of the tumor and the tissue from 
which it springs, even though an amputation of hand or arm be 








CICATRICIAL CONTRACTIONS 


463 


necessary to accomplish this object. (For minor amputations see 

p. 390.) 

An operator is placed in a trying situation if he cuts into a 
supposedly benign growth, and finds from its appearance that it 
is probably a sarcoma. If it can be freely removed without the 
sacrifice of important structures, this is evidently the course to 
pursue. Usually the case will stand thus: The appearance of the 
tumor indicates malignancy, and yet a microscopical examination 
is necessary to determine this fact with certainty; the tumor is 
so situated that to cut wide of its margin will destroy some im¬ 
portant structures. Under such circumstances the surgeon should 
remove a section of the growth for examination and close the 
wound, stating the case frankly to the patient. After the mi¬ 
croscopic examination has been made the appropriate opera¬ 
tion can be performed. This plan is far better than an im¬ 
perfect removal of a sarcoma: for once the visible tumor is 
removed, the patient will almost certainly forbid a second 
operation in the hope that all of the tumor has been removed, 
and consent will not again be obtained until the tumor is pal¬ 
pably returning. In this way valuable time is lost, and the 
chance of radical removal lessened. The effect on the patient’s 
mind is quite different when the surgeon explains to him be¬ 
fore the first operation the possibility of malignancy and a sec¬ 
ond operation (see p. 453). 

ACQUIRED DEFORMITIES 

Cicatricial Contractions. —The usefulness and beauty of 
the hand is greatly impaired by the cicatricial contractions follow¬ 
ing burns and severe inflammations (Fig. 245). (See also Figs. 
206 and 207, pp. 421 and 422.) If the damage is done in infancy, 
the deformity may actually increase with the growth of the parts. 
Hence the desirability of performing what restoration is possible 
before the fingers develop along abnormal lines. In many cases 
no treatment is indicated; in others plastic operations or skin- 
grafting may give a greater range of motion, or improve the 
position of the parts. In such cases there will always be a par¬ 
tial recurrence of the deformity, due to contraction of the new 
formed scar tissue. 


464 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

A certain amount of contraction also follows the successful 
application of a Thiersch graft. Therefore it the raw surface 



Fig. 245. —Cicatricial, Contractions from Burns in Infancy. 

which follows the dissection of the cicatrix cannot he covered by 
an attached flap of skin, a Wolfe graft should be employed. 
It will often be necessary to .lengthen the tendons in order to 



Fig. 246. —Diagram to Show a Quick Method of Lengthening a Tendon 
Without Suture When the Tendon is of Sufficient Size. 














DUPUYTREN’S CONTRACTION 


465 


obtain complete extension. Tliis can be quickly accomplished 
without the use of sutures by making two overlapping L-shaped 
incisions in each tendon (Fig. 246). Or the tendon may be 
divided obliquely and sutured. 

One should be careful not to sacrifice strength simply to gain 
a wider range of motion. A badly displaced useless finger is often 
justly amputated. 

Dupuytren’s Contraction. —This is a contraction of the 
palmar fascia, which comes on gradually in persons who work 
hard with the handle of an instrument 
in the palm. The fascia is thickened 
and drawn into distinct bands, which 
seem like cords extending to the various 
fingers, especially to the ring and little 
fingers. Complete extension of the fin¬ 
gers is then impossible (Fig. 247). The 
skin is puckered in places by the traction 
upon it from the contracted fascia. 

The only satisfactory treatment of 
this trouble is the removal of the thick¬ 
ened fascia after its dissection from the 
skin, and the underlying structures. 

When the fascia is removed, the fingers 
can be extended. There is some tend¬ 
ency to recurrence of the condition, but 
in a less marked form, so that operation 
is amply justified. It is performed as 
follows: After local or general anesthe¬ 
sia, a longitudinal incision is made 
through the skin of the palm at the site 
of the greatest contraction. It should 
usually be from two to three inches long. 

The skin is divided as deep as the fascia, 
and the two skin edges are dissected 
away from the contracted fascia for about an inch on either side. 
This is the essential part of the operation. Care should be taken to 
keep these skin flaps thick so they will not slough. Next the thick¬ 
ened and contracted fascia is divided, dissected from the deeper 
structures to which it is attached by numerous septa, and lemoved. 



Fig. 247. —Dupuytken’s Con¬ 
traction of Six Months’ 
Duration. Maximum pos¬ 
sible extension of fingers 
•shown. Note the pucker¬ 
ing of the skin, where it is 
adherent to the thickened 
fascia. 



4G6 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

The fascia is sometimes thickened into cords like tendons, so that- 
one who is performing this operation for the first time may hesi¬ 
tate to cut them. There are two unmistakable differences. The 
tendons are always the color of ivory; the fascia is pearly white. 
The tendons never lie immediately beneath the skin as the fascia 
does. After removal of the fascia the wound should be sutured 
and the hand kept on a splint fully extended for several weeks. 
Active and passive motions should be made as soon as the wound 
has healed, but to prevent return of the contraction, full extension 
on a splint should be kept up a part of each day or at night for 
several weeks. 

In slight cases multiple Y-shaped incisions with forced ex¬ 
tension will accomplish something, but this treatment is gen¬ 
erally unsatisfactory on account of the intimate attachment 
of the skin and fascia. 



Fig 248. Radiograph of the Hand of an Infant, All the Bones Normal, 
and All the Fingers Webbed The other hand was perfect. 




WEB-FINGER 


467 


CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES 



There are four types of 
congenital deformity seen 
in the upper extremity, 
viz., web-finger, supernu¬ 
merary finger, hyper tro¬ 
phy, and deficiency of one 
or more fingers, or some 
greater portion of .the hand 
or arm. 

Web - Finger. —Web- 
finger occurs in varying de¬ 
grees. In the simple cases 
there is merely an exten¬ 
sion of the normal web be¬ 
tween the fingers, all of the 




Fig. 249. —The Hand of Child 
Showing Congenital Deform¬ 
ity. One finger is missing, and 
the other is represented by its 
distal portion only, the nail and 
terminal phalanx of which are 
closely joined to its fellow. 
Drawn from a photograph. 

bones of which are normal¬ 
ly formed (Fig. 248). In 
severer cases the bones lie 
much closer together, or 
may be fused, or some of 
the bones may be wanting 
(Fig. 249). Web-fingers 
should be separated early 
by operation, so that as 
growth takes place the fin- 


Fig. 250. —Incision and Suture for Web- 
finger. The incisions are not made in the 
best situations. One should be more pal¬ 
mar and one more dorsal. Same subject 
as Fig. 249. 








468 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 


gers may develop individually, but it is better to defer operation 
till the child is a year old, as a very young infant does not stand 
well the loss of blood. Operation consists in the division of the 
skin which forms the web, and the closure of the wounds on each 
linger by suture as far as possible. The incisions for this purpose 
should not be exactly opposite as they were in the case shown in 
Figure 250, for the web will then partly recur by granulation of 
the wounds at the bottom of the lingers. A better plan is to 
make the incision on one linger ventral, and on the other linger 
dorsal. 

During recovery from the operation care should be taken to 
keep the lingers as widely separated as possible, and their active 
use should be encouraged as soon as the skin has united. 

Supernumerary Finger. —The superfluous member may 
be attached to the normal portion by skin only, or by its bony 



Fig. 251.—Supernumerary Thumb Springing from the First Phalanx of the 

Normal Thumb, Without Articulation. 


structure. In the latter case, there may be an articulation or the 
bone of the superfluous finger may spring direct from a normal 
shaft (Figs. 251 and 252). 

A supernumerary finger or thumb should be removed. Even 
if the extra member is articulated with the hand, its possible use 
in no wise compensates to the individual for the unpleasantness 





TOO MANY ACCESSORY TENDONS 


469 


of sucli an abnormality. If the attachment is of shin only, this 
should be divided. If there is an articulation, the line of separa¬ 
tion should pass through it. If the attachment is a bony one, 



Fig. 252._ Radiograph of Supernumerary Thumb. Note how the phalanx has 

developed abnormally. Operation in infancy would have prevented this. Same 


subject as Fig. 251. 

enough bone should be cut away to restore the noimal contour 
of the bone from which the supernumerary finger springs. In 
all cases care should be taken to leave sufficient skin to cover the 
wound readily. These operations should be performed m infancy. 
The loss of blood is extremely slight so that they need not be 

deferred until the child is a year old. 

Congenital Hypertrophy and Congenital Deficiency 

of one or more fingers are conditions in which surgical interfer¬ 
ence is usually not indicated. Amputation of a phi t of a hype 1 - 
trophied finger, or of a useless undeveloped finger, needs no fur¬ 
ther explanation than that given for amputation of a finger on 
page 390. 

Too Many Accessory Tendons.— The access j ^ 

on the hack of the hand^ the vinculse which hind the extensor ten- 





470 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE ARM AND HAND 

dons together and add to the strength of the hand when used as 
a whole, greatly impede the action of the individual fingers. For 
some occupations and in some persons they may fairly be considered 
congenital deformities. The ring-finger (fourth digit) suffers the 
most, as its extensor tendon often has branches extending to those 
of the middle and little fingers. Full extension of the fourth digit 
is then impossible unless the third and fifth are at least partially 
extended. This is a distinct disadvantage for one who would 
play the piano or violin, and pupils often spend many weary hours 
trying to increase the range of motion of the affected finger. 
Some gain in motion may follow such practise, especially at an 
early age, but a far better plan is the removal through a short 
incision of the limiting accessory tendons. This slight operation 
will at once greatly increase the range of extension of the finger 
which is freed and will not materially weaken the hand. The 
operation is performed as follows: 

After preparation of the skin and injection of cocain, a longi¬ 
tudinal incision should be made through the skin directly over 
the accessory tendon to be removed. Its sheath should be exposed 
and opened, and at least an inch of the accessory tendon should be 
resected, so that it may be cut off flush with the sheath of the main 
tendon. The sheath of the accessory tendon should also be resected 
and the cut ends closed, each by a stitch or two of fine catgut. 
The skin wound should be closed by interrupted sutures or a sub¬ 
cuticular one (p. 573), and a dry gauze dressing applied. The 
stitches should be removed in five days. 

The resection of the accessory tendon sheath, and the closure 
of its cut ends, is to prevent the reformation of the accessory 
tendon. Fven if this does take place it is several weeks before 
the new tendon becomes firm, and during this period the patient 
has an opportunity to extend the finger in question to a far greater 
extent than formerly. The gain thus made will be largely per¬ 
manent. Exercises should be begun a few days after the wound in 
the skin has united—say in ten days. 


SECTION VII 


AFFECTIONS OF THE LEO AND FOOT 


CHAPTER XVII 

INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 

Contusions and Abrasions. —Contusions and abrasions of 
the lower extremity are perhaps oftenest found upon the shin. 
The circulation of blood is less active in the leg and foot than in 
any other part of the body; hence, wounds do not heal as readily 
in these parts, and bruises or slight breaks in the skin, trivial in 
themselves, may become starting-points for serious inflammations. 
Therefore, every injury of the lower extremity should receive 
prompt and efficient treatment. If it is situated below the knee, 
the skin should be carefully cleansed, and a dry gauze dressing or 
a moist antiseptic dressing should be applied to it, and the limb 
bandaged from the toes to the knee, at least until repair is well 
started. As the heel never swells much, it should be left bare, 
unless it is wounded. Such a bandage will prevent edema and 
facilitate the circulation of the blood in the limb. Above the knee 
the circulation is better, and repair takes place more rapidly. 

Blister. —Unaccustomed exercise and ill fitting shoes are re¬ 
sponsible for most of the blisters which develop on the foot, usually 
on the heel and toes. They may contain clear serum or bloody 
serum. Often thev have been broken accidentally 01 intentionally 
before the doctor sees them. The fluid should be evacuated from 
the others by the passage of a sterile needle obliquely through the 
sound skin at the edge of the blister. Cleanliness should be ex¬ 
treme in order to avoid infection. Tender and abraded surfaces 
should be treated by cold cream, or by a moist antiseptic dressing, 
according to the severity of the lesion. Cold bathing and rubbing 
the sound skin with alcohol will toughen it and render less likely 
the formation of blisters. 


471 





Fig. 253. —Hematoma of Foot Produced by a Slight Turn of the Ankle. Pho 

tograph six hours after the accident. 



Fig. 254.—Hematoma Under Left Great Toe-nail. Note the elevation of the nail 

beneath the skin as far as its matrix. 


472 






HEMATOMA 


473 


Hematoma. —For the diagnosis of a hematoma the reader is 
referred to page 2. If the amount of effused blood in a hema¬ 
toma is small (Fig. 253), it may safely remain undisturbed for 
resorption. If the quantity of blood is large, it should be removed 
through a longitudinal incision, and the wound sutured. If the 
patient is first seen some days after the injury, the blood clot may 
have softened sufficiently to permit its extraction through a large 
hollow needle. 

Hematoma under a toe-nail (Fig. 254) presents the same symp¬ 
toms and demands the same treatment as hematoma under a finger¬ 
nail (p. 325). 

Subperiosteal hematoma (Fig. 255) is less easy to diagnose, 
since it may exist without discoloration of the skin. It is usually 



Fig. 255. —Subperiosteal Hematoma of the Head of the Tibia; Three Weeks 
Old from Traumatism. The joint was not involved and contained no fluid. 
Patient a man aged forty years. 

due to a direct blow. It gives a tense, rounded, fluctuating, ten¬ 
der swelling, immovable on the bone, and covered by movable skin. 
It must be differentiated from a contusion of periosteum (less 



474 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


swelling and no fluctuation) ; from a serous effusion under the 
periosteum (different fluid on aspiration) ; from a subperiosteal 
abscess (greater tenderness, edema of surrounding tissues, fever, 
etc.) ; from a fracture (usual signs, especially pain on pressure 
made on the two ends of tlie bone, radiograph) ; from syphilitic 
gumma; from tuberculous osteitis, and from sarcoma. The three 
last mentioned lesions develop gradually, and often without trau¬ 
matism. Under certain circumstances fluctuation is present in all 
three, but the fluid, if aspirated, will be, in the case of gumma, a 
straw or orange colored thin sirup; in tuberculous osteitis, a thin, 
flaky pus.; and in sarcoma, pure fresh blood; while the fluid from 
a hematoma is dark, abnormal blood. The radiographs of the three 
lesions are also different, and a gumma will often diminish very 
much in size after a few days’ treatment with potassium- iodid; or 
its true character may be shown by a positive Wassermann reaction. 
The treatment of hematoma is given above. After aspiration or 
incision a firm bandage should be applied to prevent recurrence. 

Rupture of a Vein. —Rupture of a vein of the leg may 
be followed by a serious loss of blood. The vein which bursts 
is always varicose, and the overlying skin is much atrophied on 
account of this varicosity. A previous ulceration and cicatrization 
may also be present, though this is not necessary. The rupture 
of the vein usually follows some slight traumatism. The opening 
is small, and light pressure applied directly to it readily controls 
the bleeding. The wound should be cleansed (p. 13) and a 
sterile gauze compress bandaged over it and left in place for a 
few days. Ligation of the vessel is not often called for. To 
perform this operation, make a skin incision parallel to the vein, 
free the vessel for a half inch or more, pass a double catgut liga¬ 
ture about it, tie it above and below the rupture, and then cut 
the vein in two. Suture the incision in the skin and apply a dry 
dressing. 

Subcutaneous rupture of a vein also occurs, due either to direct 
violence or to indirect violence. When it is due to a sudden 
strain or to a fall, the presence of effused blood may lead to a 
false diagnosis of fracture. For the treatment of the resulting 
hematoma see page 3. If hemorrhage continues in spite of pres¬ 
sure, a free incision should be made and the bleeding vessel exposed 
and ligated. The wound should be sutured. 


WOUNDS 


475 


Rupture of Tendon. —The slender tendon of the plantaris 
muscle sometimes snaps as the result of sudden tension. This acci¬ 
dent causes a sharp pain in the back of the leg, as if a smart blow 
were given with a stick. Soreness and lameness follow, lasting a 
few days. There may or may not he a slight eceliymosis appear¬ 
ing on the surface after a few days. The only treatment required 
is warm bathing and rubbing, to overcome the soreness. The 
accident is not a common one. 

Wounds. —While there is nothing peculiar in the diagnosis 
of wounds of the lower extremity, it is desirable to emphasize the 
importance of thorough treatment of even trivial wounds when 
they occur in the aged or others whose circulation is not the best. 
Many intractable ulcers of the leg and serious infections of the 
foot start in wounds which would have healed promptly had ra¬ 
tional treatment been given them. An old physician once said to 
the author: “Ho man ever performed an operation for cataract 
more carefully than I cut my corns.” He was a diabetic, and had 
good reason to be careful; but infection and ulceration follows care¬ 
lessly treated wounds of the foot and leg in many persons whose 
resistance has been decreased by nephritis, heart disease, anemia, 
repeated childbirth, and other causes. 

Three common illustrations of the serious trouble which may 
develop from infected wounds are: Ulcer of the leg from a wound 
of the shin; suppuration in the first metatarsophalangeal joint 
from a wound of the overlying bursa; perforating ulcer of the 
foot from a wound by the side of a callus of the sole of the foot. 

Punctured Wound of a Joint.—There are a few special struc¬ 
tures which may be injured in wounds of the lower extremity. 
The knee-joint may be opened by a wound at either side of the 
patella, or either side of the quadriceps tendon; the ankle-joint 
may be opened by a wound behind, below, or in front of either 
malleolus; the first and fifth metatarsophalangeal joints may be 
opened by wounds at the side of the respective joints. If the 
wound of a joint is small and made by a clean instrument, the 
only symptom may be the escape of viscid fluid. In most cases 
there will be, however, some signs of irritation, such as swelling 
of the joint, increased fluid in it, tenderness on manipulation, and 
a limitation of motion on account of pain. If the infection is 
severe, there will be great edema and pain, high fever, chills, etc. 



476 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


In tlie usual case, if the wound is recent, it should be explored 
up to the joint capsule. If there is reason to believe that the joint 
has not been infected, a drain should be so placed as just to reach 
the capsule of the joint, and the superficial wound should be closed. 
If there is reason to suppose that foreign material has been car¬ 
ried into the joint, or if infection is already present, the joint 
should be irrigated and drained through a second incision, if 
necessary. (See p. 532.) 

Division of Tendons or Nerves.—Every wound should be ex¬ 
plored for the sake of cleanliness and for the suture of tendons 
and nerves which may have been divided. This complication is 
most likely to follow wounds behind a malleolus or at the front of 
the ankle. The directions for suturing a divided tendon and nerve 
are given on pages 332 and 334. 

Bursitis. —There are numerous bursa? in the lower extremity. 
More than twenty are described in the vicinity of the knee-joint, 
but most of them perform their function so perfectly that they 
never come to the notice of patient or surgeon. Of all the bursae 
of the lower extremity, the prepatellar bursa is most often affected, 
and on this account, and because its reactions are typical, its 
lesions will be first described. 

Acute Prepatellar Bursitis.—This affection is often seen in 
persons who work on their knees, scrubbing floors, laying carpets, 
etc., but is by no means confined to them. While it is true that 
a person kneels on the tubercle of the tibia rather than on the 
patella, yet the latter is constantly bruised and strained in reaching 
or crawling forward. The knee of a woman who scrubs for a 
living shows two calluses, one over the tibial tubercle and one at 
the lower margin of the patella, unless these two are fused in one 
large callus. 

If the prepatellar bursa is distended with fluid, serum, or pus 
or blood, it plainly fluctuates. Sometimes the bursa is situated 
directly in front of the patella, but usually it covers only the lower 
half of this bone, and may extend over a part of the patellar 
ligament. Such variations in situation have no surgical impor¬ 
tance. It is of the greatest importance to distinguish fluid in the 
prepatellar bursa from fluid in the pretibial bursa, situated behind 
the patellar ligament, and from fluid in the knee-joint itself. It is 
easy to do this if the patient, lying or sitting 1 , is able to extend 



BURSITIS 


477 


tlie leg horizontally. The increased tension of the patellar liga¬ 
ment will obscure fluctuation within the area covered by the 
ligament, provided that the fluid lies behind it, although fluc¬ 
tuation at the sides may be made more distinct thereby. If the 
fluid lies in front of the ligament or patella, fluctuation will 
not be affected by extension of the leg. The fat behind the patel¬ 
lar ligament being 
more or less con¬ 
fined, often fluctu¬ 
ates. If edema is 
present, the result 
of trauma, com¬ 
parison of the two 
knees may fail to 
clear the diagno¬ 
sis. A few days’ 
rest will reduce a 
swelling due to a 
traumatic edema, 
but will not cause 
the disappearance 
of a bursitis. 

The physical 
siens of bursitis 
are these: A well 
localized fluctuat¬ 
ing swelling cov¬ 
ered by movable 
normal skin; only 
slight tenderness 
and pain; little disturbance of the functions of the adjacent joint 
(Fig. 256). 

Suppurative Prepatellar Bursitis.—If the bursa is infected, the 
contained fluid will be purulent; there will then be edema and red¬ 
ness of the tissues outside of the bursa, and pain and tenderness 
and impairment of function will be proportionately greater. The 
lesion must then be differentiated from an abscess in the subcuta¬ 
neous tissues outside the bursa. In this case the swelling will not 
be so sharply limited, and will probably not correspond so exactly 








478 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


to the situation of the bursa. For example, an abscess in the frono 
of the knee will probably lie more to one side than the other, 
whereas swelling due to suppuration in the prepatellar bursa will 
extend equally toward both sides. It is of course possible for 
suppuration in a bursa to break through the sac and extend into the 

subcutaneous tis¬ 
sue. In the case 
of the prepatellar 
bursa, such rup¬ 
ture is usually 
through the skin 
(Fig. 257). 

Chronic Prepa¬ 
tellar Bursitis.— 
The acute bursitis 
may subside, the - 
fluid being ab¬ 
sorbed. Usually 
the sac is slightly 
thicker than be¬ 
fore. With re¬ 
peated trauma¬ 
tisms, and reaccu¬ 
mulations of fluid, 
this organization 
of fibrous tissue 
inside the sac 
may go on until 
its cavity is near¬ 
ly or quite oblit¬ 
erated, and a 
slightly elastic 
fibrous tumor occupies the site of the bursa. Such a tumor 
is usually painless, but gives a permanent disfigurement. Fig¬ 
ure 258 shows a bursa in process of organization, removed by 
operation, and split open. Numerous buds of granulation are 
seen, one of which, lying across the blades of the forceps, is 
almost long enough to attach itself to the opposite wall. Two 
other processes, one slender and one thick, both of which are 



Fig. 257. —Suppuration in Prepatellar Bursa; Rup¬ 
ture Through Skin Five Weeks Before Photo¬ 
graph; Repair bv Granulation Taking Place in 
Lower Portion of Cavity. Patient a man aged 
seventy years. 





BURSITIS 


479 


also lying on the blades of the forceps, have already become so 
attached. 

Treatment of Prepatellar Bursitis. —If there is uncom¬ 
plicated prepatellar bursitis, palliative treatment is permissible. 
Limitation of motion 
by a bandage or a pos¬ 
terior splint; pressure 
upon the bursa by a 
bandage or adhesive 
strapping; moist ap¬ 
plications or an ice- 
bag to relieve pain; 
and counter-irritants 
such as tincture of io- 
din or guaiacol, are 
suitable remedies. If 
the fluid does not di¬ 
minish in amount, it 
may be withdrawn by 
aspiration, and the 
part tightly strapped 
with adhesive plaster; 
or twenty minims of 
a mixture of equal parts of carbolic acid and camphor may be 
injected into the bursal sac. This will • sometimes cause the 
disappearance of the fluid, even without aspiration. As it can 
be injected through a small hypodermic needle, it is a less for¬ 
midable procedure than aspiration, which to be thorough requires 
a good sized needle. Treatment by injection, if successful, leaves 
a thickened bursa. 

If the bursa is infected, it should be split longitudinally 
throughout its whole extent. This may be done under cocain or 
nitrous monoxid. The cavity should be lightly filled with gauze, 
which should remain for several days to favor granulations from 
the whole of the lining of the bursal sac. When this has been 
accomplished, the gauze may be removed, and the skin edges gradu¬ 
ally brought together by strips of adhesive plaster, space being left 
between them for drainage. In certain cases a secondary suture 
of the skin is advisable. 



Fig. 258.— Proliferative Prepatellar Bursitis. 
Bursa removed by operation and split open. 
Note the granulating processes of various lengths, 
some of which have already become attached at 
both ends. Said by the pathologist to be tuber¬ 
cular. Same patient as Fig. 256. 




480 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


The best treatment for chronic serous or fibrinous bursitis is 
dissection of the bursa (Fig. 259) and suture of the skin. This 
operation demands a general anesthetic in most cases. It is easy 
to free the anterior surface and sides of the prepatellar bursa with 
the help of a local anesthetic, but its base is very adherent to the 



Fig. 259. —Dissection of Prepatellar Bursa, Involved in Chronic Inflamma¬ 
tion, in this Case Pronounced Tubercular by the Pathologist. Same 
subject as shown in Fig. 25G. Drawn from a photograph. 


patella or ligament, and the pain of this dissection is not easily 
stilled by eucain or cocain. Another reason for the removal of a 
chronically involved bursa is the possibility of tuberculosis. 

Subgfuteal Bursitis.—One of the bursse in the vicinity of the 
hip may become inflamed as the result of traumatism or tubercu¬ 
losis. The bursa most often so involved is situated beneath the 
gluteus maximus muscle. It gives a slight oval swelling with 
a little tenderness and limitation of the motions of the hip-joint. 
It may therefore be mistaken for hip-joint disease; or, as stated 
above, it may be a complication of hip disease. In every case, 
therefore, of bursitis of this region, even if it follows a trauma¬ 
tism, it is well to bear this fact in mind. 









BURSITIS 


481 


The Bursa Gastrocnemio-Semimembranosa.—There are other 
bursae of the lower extremity which become enlarged with suffi¬ 
cient frequency to make them important. One is the bursa under 
the tendon of the semimembranosus. When distended, a part 
of this bursa is palpable in the popliteal space, while the rest of 
it is hidden beneath the inner hamstring tendons. A mistake in 
diagnosis ought not to occur. A popliteal aneurism occupies the 
middle of the popliteal space and pulsates. An abscess is accom¬ 
panied by the acute signs of inflammation, which are lacking in 
distention of this bursa; and even a cold abscess will be accom¬ 
panied by some local tenderness and loss of function, referable 
to the source of the pus. 

_ .» * • • - i «, » 

The only treatment worth considering is the removal of the 
bursa by dissection. This is not a serious operation, but it de¬ 
mands a general anesthetic and several days’ rest in bed. In 
about one person in five this bursa communicates with the knee- 
joint, a fact which is no contra-indication to operation. 

The Bursa Under the Tendo Achillis.—The small bursa between 
the tendo Achillis and the os calcis sometimes becomes inflamed 
as a result of excessive exercise or a fall or blow; or the trouble 
may come on more gradually, as a complication of gout, rheuma¬ 
tism, etc. 

The chief symptom is pain at the back of the heel, so that the 
name achillodynia has sometimes been applied to this bursitis. 
The pain may be continuous, or it may be excited by contraction 
of the muscles of the calf when the patient bears his weight upon 
the ball of the foot. The easiest gait under the circumstances is 
to rotate the leg outward, and to avoid flexion and extension of 
the ankle. 

Treatment consists in the application of heat and counter-irri¬ 
tants ; in the removal of pressure by splitting the heel of the shoe 
or wearing a slipper; in disuse of the foot and in fixation of the 
ankle-joint by adhesive strapping or in more severe cases by the 
use of a plaster of Paris splint. In chronic cases complete ex¬ 
cision of the bursa is indicated through two short incisions, one 
on either side of the tendo Achillis. A plaster of Paris splint 
should be applied to insure recovery with the foot in a cor¬ 
rect position, i. e., flexed at least to a right angle and slightly 
inverted. 



482 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


Metatarsophalangeal Bursitis; Bunion.—A bursa lying between 
the skin and the head of the first metatarsal bone is exposed to 
pressure from a shoe, and often becomes inflamed. This bursitis 
is commonly called a bunion, although this term is used to indi¬ 
cate any painful swelling about this metatarsophalangeal joint. 
The corresponding bursa of the fifth metatarsal bone may be simi¬ 
larly affected (Fig. 260). 

The inflammation in the bursa may subside, leaving its walls 
slightly thickened, and subject to a recurrence of the attack. Or 



Fig. 260.—Inflammation of the Metatarsophalangeal Bursa on the Outer 

Side of the Foot. 

if the inflammation is suppurative, the overlying skin may rup¬ 
ture and allow the escape of pus and mucus. The resulting sinus 
may heal, or it may persist, or it may close from time to time, 
only to break open as the fluid reaccumulates in the bursa. As 
the bursa often communicates with the metatarsophalangeal joint, 
the cavity of this joint frequently becomes involved in the inflam¬ 
mation, which may lead to necrosis of the metatarsal bone. This 
complication is most apt to occur in cases of hallux valgus. 
Indeed this bursa is rarely inflamed except in cases of hallux 
valgus. 







SEROUS SYNOVITIS 


483 


Treatment. —Mild cases of bursitis may be allowed to sub¬ 
side. The affected part should be protected from pressure by a 
bunion plaster, and pain should be controlled by counter-irritants, 
such as iodin, guaiacol, menthol, etc. Moist and dry heat both 
give the patient great relief. 

If the bursitis is suppurative the cavity of the bursa should 
be freely drained by a longitudinal incision to the plantar side 
of the bursa, or the whole bursa may be removed by dissection. 
In either case the wound should be drained, and the toe kept at 
rest by a plantar or lateral splint, so padded as not to press upon 
the inflamed part (Fig. 299, p. 553). If the joint is seriously 
involved, resection of the head of the metatarsal bone will give 
the best drainage, and will at the same time enable the surgeon 
to correct the deformity of the hallux valgus (see p. 550). 

Serous Synovitis. —The majority of cases of serous syno¬ 
vitis are of traumatic origin, and are discussed under the heading 
“ Sprain,” pages 486-496, where methods of diagnosis and treat¬ 
ment are given. Serous synovitis not due to injury occurs in 
rheumatism and gonorrheal arthritis, though the process in these 
diseases is usually an arthritis, all of the tissues which surround the 
joint being involved. It also occurs in acute infectious diseases, and 
in gout, syphilis, and tuberculosis; and occasionally in tabes dor¬ 
salis (Charcot’s joint), and under some circumstances in which no 
definite cause can be assigned. In many of these cases the collec¬ 
tion of serum in the cavity of the joint is only an early stage of an 
inflammation, which soon becomes purulent, or it is an accompani¬ 
ment of a deeper process, as in tuberculosis, tabes, etc. Hence 
every effort should be made in these non-traumatic cases to make 
a complete diagnosis, and not to rest satisfied with the diagnosis 
of serous synovitis. The location of the fluid, whether in the 
joint, in some bursa, or diffuse in the soft tissues; and the pres¬ 
ence of accompanying cellulitis should be determined. The 
amount of pain on manipulation, and especially the presence of 
pain produced by crowding together the cartilaginous ends of the 
bones, without flexing or extending them, is of importance as 
showing the extent to which inflammation has involved the bones. 
The circumference of the joint and of the limb above and below 
it should be compared with the sound limb and recorded for future 
reference. Similar note should be made of the limitation of flex- 



484 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


ion and extension, and whatever other motion the joint has nor¬ 
mally. The patient’s temperature should be taken several times, 
for a day or so at least, and if circumstances permit, the blood 
should be examined, and fluid aspirated from the joint should 
be tested for bacteria. Our knowledge of joint diseases is so 
imperfect that no opportunity should be lost by which clinical 
data may be added. Finally, there is the test of treatment, and 
especially the effect of rest, and of the salicylates and of iodid of 
potash. 

The treatment of traumatic synovitis is outlined on page 493. 
The measures there indicated are, rest, obtained by strapping with 
adhesive plaster or by the use of splints or by remaining in bed; 
elastic pressure to favor the resorption of the fluid; ice to control 
pain; massage or counter-irritation to stimulate circulation. These 
measures are equally beneficial in non-traumatic serous synovitis. 
Massage and passive or active motion should not be employed as 
long as an active inflammatory focus exists. Aspiration of fluid 
has a curative as well as a diagnostic value. In sluggish cases it 
may be followed by the injection of a three per cent solution of 
carbolic acid. Jf clots or fibrin prevent the escape of the joint 
contents, saline should be injected and withdrawn, and this re- 
peated until the joint is clean. The importance of absolute asep¬ 
sis in aspiration or irrigation cannot be too strongly emphasized. 
Immediately after the aspiration pressure should be applied to 
the joint. 

Chronic Serous Synovitis.—If the knee or ankle is subjected 
to repeated traumatisms, the condition of the joint may become 
chronic. It is then desirable to use counter-irritants in addi¬ 
tion to the measures spoken of above. The actual cautery is 
one of the cleanest and best. Tincture of iodin, iodin ointment, 
and cantharidal collodion are other efficacious remedies. The 
counter-irritation should be repeated in three days or one week, 
according to depth of irritation produced. 

Floating Cartilage. —Patients sometimes complain that the 
knee catches in walking, or in going up or down stairs, giving 
more or less pain, and requiring some manipulation before it will 
work again. Sometimes a clear history of injury is given; more 
often this is not the case. Such mechanical difficulty may be due 
to a loose cartilage (Fig. 261), a body found only in the knee- 



FLOATING CARTILAGE 


485 


joint, and whose origin is not satisfactorily accounted for; while 
sometimes a loosened meniscus plainly slips from its normal situ¬ 
ation and gets caught between the hones; and sometimes one can 
only speculate as to the cause of the trouble. 

A joint which suffers from such repeated small injuries natu¬ 
rally becomes weakened, and usually contains a little fluid. If 
there is a loose cartilage, 
freely movable in the joint 
cavity, one cannot hope to 
improve the condition of 
the joint until it is re¬ 
moved. If it can be 
brought well to one side, 
and fixed by a hat-pin, it 
can be removed through an 
incision made under the 
influence of a local anes¬ 
thetic. This should not be 
attempted unless it is rea- 
certain that only 
one such loose cartilage ex¬ 
ists; and the asepsis should 
he absolute. The wound 
in the capsule should be 
sutured with fine plain cat¬ 
gut and the skin wound sutured with fine silk and a dry dressing 
and posterior splint applied. If any drain is employed, it should 
reach only to the incision in the capsule, and should be removed 
in two days. 

While in removing a floating cartilage it is necessary to cut 
directly down upon it, there is often a choice of location, since it 
can be moved about. The most favorable line of incision is that 
shown in Figure 262, or just anterior to the internal lateral liga¬ 
ment. At this point the capsule of the joint is covered only by 
the skin with its fat and a thin fascia. When the leg is extended 
this incision is parallel to its long axis. 

These are the simplest cases. If more than one loose cartilage 
exists, or if displacement of one of the semilunar cartilages causes 
the symptoms, exploration of the knee-joint may be necessary, and 




Fig. 261. — Floating Cartilage from the 
Knee-joint: the “Joint Mouse” of the 
Germans. Removed through an incision 
made under cocain after the cartilage was 
speared with a hatpin. The illustration 
shows the cartilage enlarged 1% diameters. 





486 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 



a general anesthetic should he given. The exact site for the inci¬ 
sion in case of semilunar displacement may sometimes he deter¬ 
mined by palpation. A depression can sometimes be felt where 
the base of the semilunar has become loosened, and pressure at 

this point causes pain. 
Usually it is the ante¬ 
rior part of the inner 
semilunar which is af¬ 
fected. If it is not 
deformed or broken, it 
should be stitched in 
correct position by fine 
chromic gut. If this is 
not feasible, so much of 
the cartilage as is a hin¬ 
drance to free motion of 
the joint should be re¬ 
moved. 

The incision for the 
removal of several float¬ 
ing cartilages from the 
knee-joint is a longitu¬ 
dinal one slightly longer 
than the one shown in 
Figure 262. A second 
incision, opening the 
outer side of the joint, 
is rarely necessary. The 
capsule of the joint 
should be sutured, not 
too tightly, with fine 
plain catgut, so that fluid can escape if it accumulates. A drain 
should lead to the wound in the capsule, but not through it, and 
the skin should be sutured with silk or horsehair. A splint should 
be employed; either a removable posterior one or a circular gyp¬ 
sum splint with a fenestrum to permit the removal of the drain 
in two days. 

Sprains. —In injuries of this sort it is well to distinguish as 
far as possible between overstretching, or even rupture of the liga- 


Fig. 262. — Incision for Removal, of Floating 
Cartilage from the Knee Under Local An¬ 
esthesia. In the case shown the cartilage had 
been chipped from the tibia by traumatism, 
and although loose, was not in the knee-joint. 
Its approximate shape and location is shown 
by the wad of adhesive plaster, the upper edge 
of which is exactly in the horizontal plane of 
the knee-joint. 






SPRAIN OF THE HIP 


487 


ments, and contusions of the soft parts, or even of the hones them¬ 
selves (see p. 338). 

Spiain of the Hip-joint. —The hip-joint is so well surrounded 
with strong muscles that it is rarely sprained. Contusions of the 
hip from tails on the side are common. In children a differential 
diagnosis must be made between sprain or contusion and tubercu¬ 
losis of the joint; in adults beyond middle age, the usual differ¬ 
ential diagnosis is between contusion and fracture (possibly 
impacted) of the neck of the femur. Age is not an absolute 
classifier of these three, so that all should be considered at 
any age. 

Methods of Examination. —The patient should be stripped 
from the waist down and placed on a firm level surface. A folded 
towel laid between the thighs and brought up over the pubes to the 
umbilicus in no way interferes with a complete examination, and 
by lessening very much the feeling of exposure, aids the patient 
in relaxation. The hip should be inspected and palpated, and 
compared with the opposite side. Any change in color or outline, 
any thickening of the bones about the trochanter, any points of 
tenderness, and an abnormal position of either limb (abduction 
or rotation), should be carefully noted. 

The two limbs should be measured from the anterior superior 
iliac spines to the internal or external malleoli. Before making 
these measurements, one should see that the two ilia are on a 
level, and that the feet and legs are equally distant from the 
median line of the body. A difference in length of less than 
one-half an inch has little diagnostic value. Fracture of the neck 
of the femur gives a shortening of an inch or an inch and one- 
half. In only a few cases is it more or less than these amounts. 
In sprain and the early stage of tuberculosis there is no short¬ 
ening if the limb can be fully extended. If measurements reveal 
the existence of shortening, further measurements should be made 
to determine its exact location. This can be done in three ways: 
(1) The tibiie can be measured; or (2) the distance from the 
tip of the great trochanter to the external malleolus; or (3) 
Bryant’s perpendicular laid out. To do this accurately one 
should mark the upper limit of the great trochanter on the skin 
with ink; mark the anterior superior spine in the same way; 
and then draw a line on the skin directly backward (a vertical 


488 


INJURIES OF THE L^G AND FOOT 


line as the patient is lying horizontally), and let fall a perpen¬ 
dicular from the trochanter to this line (Fig. 263). A difference 
in these two perpendiculars on the two sides will indicate a dis¬ 
location of the femur, a fracture of the neck, or an error of meas¬ 
urement. This method is far more accurate than A chiton s, by 



Fig. 263. —Relations of the Great Trochanter to the Ilium. Bryant’s Per¬ 
pendicular is the Broken Line. 

which one estimates the possible displacement of the trochanter 
by drawing a line on the surface from the anterior superior spine 
to the ischium. Such a line is a curve, more markedly so in stout 
persons, and it is difficult to be sure that it follows the same course 
on the two sides of the body, even though its ends are accurately 
placed. By means of these various measurements one can in most 
cases say positively that shortening does or does not exist, and if 
present, estimate its amount and locate it exactly. 

Occasionally a person is found whose legs differ in length by 
as much as an inch. If such a one sprains his hip on the short 
side, the diagnosis will be obscure for a few days until the prompt 
recovery rules out any serious injury. The author met one such 
case in a boy aged fourteen. 

Finally, functions of the joint are to be tested. The various 
motions of which the joint is capable, adduction, abduction, flex¬ 
ion, extension, and external and internal rotation, are to be per¬ 
formed both passively and actively, and limitation of motion, pain, 
and muscular spasm are to be noted. Muscular spasm is most 




SPRAIN OF THE KNEE 


489 


marked in tuberculosis, especially on overextension or external 
rotation. In fracture there is loss of active motion to a great 
degree, and the limb is usually fixed in external rotation, a de¬ 
formity which cannot he overcome either actively or passively. 
Tuberculosis also gives a daily fever, at least of one or two de¬ 
grees. Impacted fracture should always he recognized when pres¬ 
ent, by the abnormal rotation of the limb, its shortening, the 
marked loss of function, and the palpable thickening about the 
trochanter. A single examination may not serve in all cases 
to differentiate sprain and tuberculosis. The former will be 
cured by a few days’ treatment of rest, secured by a light spica 
bandage of plaster of Paris; while the symptoms of the latter 
will only be somewhat improved by the bandage, even when com¬ 
bined with rest in bed, and will promptly return and grow worse 
as soon as the patient goes about again. 

An unimpacted fracture of the neck of the femur, having the 
unmistakable symptoms of shortening, crepitus, and abnormal 
motion at the hip, can scarcely be confounded with the other 
lesions mentioned. In both impacted and unimpacted fractures 
of the neck of the femur there should be found displacement of 
the trochanter upward. 

Treatment. —The treatment of sprain or contusion of the 
hip consists of rest in bed, with external heat or counter-irritants 
to control pain. The patient should be early encouraged to make 
the motions of flexion and rotation at the hip-joint while still 
in a recumbent position. As soon as tenderness subsides the nor¬ 
mal use of the limb should be resumed. Such an injury is most 
apt to occur in the aged, and the early use of their joints is to 
be encouraged, in order to avoid stiffness. But first there should 
be a careful examination to exclude fracture, and second, the 
patient should be assisted in the early attempts to walk, lest a 
second fall add to the existing injury. 

Sprain of the knee produces some or all of the following symp¬ 
toms: Pain; tenderness, especially if extreme flexion or exten¬ 
sion is attempted; partial loss of function; swelling of the soft 
tissues, and effusion of fluid into the joint cavity. If one of the 
lateral ligaments is torn there will also be an abnormal lateral 
motion in the joint when manipulated. 1 be last named sign com¬ 
ing on suddenly after an injury is pathognomonic; but continued 



490 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


distention of the joint cavity will also stretch the ligaments of the 
joint, so that abnormal lateral motion is obtainable. 

Demonstration of Fluid in the Joint. —Fluid in the knee- 
joint is best demonstrated by compressing the cul-de-sac beneath 
the quadriceps tendon with the palm of the hand, while one finger 
of the other hand pushes the patella lightly but quickly backward 
to the femur (Fig. 264). The leg should be extended on the 
thigh and the muscles relaxed during this test. If the joint con- 



Fig. 264. —Demonstration of Floating Patella. 


tains no fluid, the patella is in contact with the femur, and noth¬ 
ing happens when it is thrust backward. If the joint contains 
even a little fluid, the position of the limb and the compression 
of the upper hand (left in the figure) forces the fluid into the 
lower and anterior part of the joint and the patella is separated 
from the femur. The sudden thrust of the finger pushes the 
patella backward through the fluid, and it strikes the femur with 
an appreciable click. 

The fluid in the knee-joint after a sprain is usually serous, 
though it may be bloody if the injury is more severe. Fluid is 
not pathognomonic of sprain, since it may be caused by internal 







SPRAIN OF THE KNEE 


491 


sources of irritation, as is mentioned below, and in some cases 
no fluid can be demonstrated in the joint, even though a sprain is 
known to have occurred. 

Differential Diagnosis. —In differential diagnosis with 
sprain of the knee-joint one must consider prepatellar bursitis, 
rupture of a lateral ligament, reduced dislocation of the knee, 
dislocation of a meniscus, loose or floating cartilage, and the vari¬ 
ous acute and chronic inflammatory disorders of joints to which 
the knee is especially subject, and sarcoma. Dor a full list of 
the symptoms of these various diseases the reader should look 
under the appropriate heads, as only the most striking differences 
are here given. 

In prepatellar bursitis the fluid is confined in a compara¬ 
tively small sac, which lies in front of the patella and not behind 
it, as in sprain, and the functions of the joint are not affected 
by it. 

Rupture of a lateral ligament gives abnormal lateral mobil¬ 
ity ; reduced dislocation may be recognized by this same sign, or 
possibly only by the history. 

A patient with displacement of a meniscus usually gives a 
history of repeated attacks of painful locking of the joint, fol¬ 
lowed by fluid in the joint and limitation of motion for a few 
days. Sometimes palpation will reveal an alteration in the joint 
about the base of the loosened meniscus. 

A loose or floating cartilage will often have been detected by 
the patient, who may be able to demonstrate its presence by bring¬ 
ing it to one side of the joint. It keeps up the effusion in the 
joint to an extent not warranted by the history of injury, and 
indeed may exist without any pain or loss of function. 

Acute suppuration in the knee-joint, following a punctured 
wound for example, on account of the great surface of the joint 
cavity produces much pain, swelling, fever, etc. It is a serious 
condition which cannot be confounded with slight injuries. A 
puncture of the knee-joint without suppuration does not prevent 
a patient from walking about. It should be recognized by the 
tenacious character of the escaping fluid, not by the probe. Such 
a wound should be cleansed and dressed at once, a posterior splint 
applied, and the patient put to bed, lest he suffer the much greater 
ills of a suppurating joint. 


492 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


Acute rheumatism comes on without injury, gives a fever, and 
usually involves more than one joint. 

Gonorrheal, gouty, tuberculous, and syphilitic arthritis are 
also slowly progressing affections with local and general symptoms 
of inflammation. If the inflammation is not marked and the dis¬ 
ability of the knee is first noticed after some traumatism, a mis¬ 
take in diagnosis is possible, hut a careful history and examina¬ 
tion will clearly separate these lesions from a sprain. 

Arthritis deformans is a progressive affection which alters the 
ends of the hones, gives little or no fluid in the joints, and limits 
motions very greatly. It usually occurs independent of injury. 

Sarcoma of the lower end of the femur is more likely to he 
mistaken for tuberculosis than for a traumatism of the joint. 
It always enlarges the hone, a point which can he demonstrated 
hy the X-ray if not hy the fingers. 

Treatment.— The essentials of treatment of a sprain of the 
knee are rest to the joint and compression. These ends can he 
secured hy a posterior splint and bandage. An excellent splint 
is made by wetting a plaster of Paris bandage and drawing it 
hack and forth on a hoard fifteen or twenty times, a distance of 
two feet or more, according to the length of the patient’s limb. 
It should reach from the ankle to the great trochanter. The 
layers of the bandage should he well rubbed together as they are 
applied to each other, so that the splint when completed shall 
be one solid piece. Three bandages, each three inches wide, are 
needed. The splint should he bandaged in position immediately, 
so that it may take the shape of the hare limb before it sets. 
If the limb is hairy, it should be smeared with vaseline or shaved. 
When the splint is hard it may be removed and covered with 
canton flannel, reapplied, and held in position by a soft bandage. 
A pure flannel bandage may be used for this purpose. If an 
inelastic bandage is used, the knee should be covered anteriorly 
with a broad pad of cotton, so that elastic pressure mav be 
obtained. The splint should be broad enough to enclose fully 
one-third of the circumference of the limb, and the leg should 
not be absolutely extended on the thigh when the splint is applied, 
but should make with it an angle of about one hundred and sixty- 
five degrees. This gives the knee the greatest comfort when the 
patient is walking, sitting, or lying. Such is the initial treat- 


SPRAIN OF THE ANKLE 


493 


ment for a sprain of moderate degree. If the sprain is more 
severe, or if one of the lateral ligaments is ruptured, the patient 
should not he allowed to put any weight on the limb, and should 
lie in bed or go about 
on crutches. 

A pleasanter meth¬ 
od of treatment, appli¬ 
cable to slight sprains 
or more severe ones 
after the first or second 
week, is the strapping 
of the joint, laterally 
and anteriorly, with 
strips of adhesive plas¬ 
ter laid on diagonally 
(Fig. 265). 

Still another meth¬ 
od is daily massage and 
the application of an 
elastic bandage of flan¬ 
nel or rubber, without 
any splint. 

Sprain of the Ankle. 

. Fig. 265 . —Strapping with Adhesive Plaster 

I he ankle IS more FOR Sprain of the Knee. 

often sprained than any 

other joint of the lower extremity. For convenience, it is well 
to consider these sprains in three classes, according to the degree 
of the injury, whether slight, medium, or severe. In almost all 
cases the foot is turned inward, so that any tearing of the liga¬ 
ments which occurs is usually on the outer aspect. 

Sprain of Slight Degree. —In a slight sprain of the ankle 
there is a little pain and tenderness and a little swelling, espe¬ 
cially below the external, malleolus. The patient walks without 
difficulty, and there is no abnormal motion of the foot. 

Treatment .—For the first and second day following the in¬ 
jury the limb should be kept in a horizontal position and treated 
by hot fomentations, light massage, and passive motions two or 
three times a day. On the third day and tlieieaftei it should 
have a hot douche for thirty minutes, followed by a cold douche 






494 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


for a minute, and this followed by massage. This treatment 
should be repeated twice a day and active motion begun, the 
patient being allowed to walk. 

Another plan is to apply adhesive strapping at once, as de¬ 
scribed below. 

Sprain of Medium Severity. —If the sprain is of medium 
degree, the pain and tenderness are more marked, the swelling 
is greater and involves the whole circumference of the ankle, and 
there is more difficulty in walking. Some of the ligaments are 
ruptured, and in addition there is probably contusion of the articu¬ 
lar surfaces of the bones. 

The treatment described above for slight sprain may be car¬ 
ried out for forty-eight hours; or a flannel bandage may be firmly 
applied from the toes to the knee and the limb soaked in water 
at 110 to 115 degrees for three or four hours to prevent swelling. 

After this preliminary treatment with hot water, or hot 
fomentations and massage, adhesive straps should be applied to 
the foot, ankle, and leg. They serve a threefold purpose, keep¬ 
ing the foot in a correct position, preventing extreme motion in 
any direction, and exerting automatic massage by varying the 
pressure in different parts every time the foot is moved. 

The leg should be shaved, washed with soap and hot water, 
alcohol, and ether. Strips of adhesive plaster should be applied 
in such a manner that they will fit accurately and each will overlap 
the next by a third of an inch. The exact pattern makes little dif¬ 
ference, since the individual strips are soon welded into a single 
casing. A good plan is to apply a broad strip like a stirrup, ex¬ 
tending from below the knee on the inner side of the leg, cover¬ 
ing the inner malleolus, the plantar surface of the heel, the outer 
malleolus, and finishing on the outer surface of the leg near the 
head of the fibula. In applying this, the foot should be held at 
a right angle to the leg, and in a correct position laterally, or 
possibly slightly abducted, in order to relax the strain on the 
iRJRied ligaments. Additional strips not more - than an inch 
wide should circle the heel horizontally, and reach to the base of 
the toes (Fig. 266). These should be carried well above the 
ankle. If there is fear that the swelling will increase, these hori¬ 
zontal strips may be stopped before they meet in front, although 
the support in that case will be less firm. A light gauze bandage 


SPRAIN OF THE ANKLE 


495 


completes the dressing. On the third day the patient can walk 
about with a cane, but the massage and passive motion should he 
continued. 

If the adhesive plaster becomes loose, it should be removed and 
renewed. After two weeks it may be removed, but douches and 



Fig. 266 . —A Good Method of Strapping a Sprained Ankle with Adhesive 

Plaster. 

massage should then he resumed and continued as long as the 
joint is weak. 

Some surgeons prefer cold to heat in the early treatment of 
these sprains, and keep an ice-hag in contact with the ankle for 
a part of each day after the adhesive plaster has been applied. 
This plan works well in some cases, hut must he used with cau¬ 
tion if the patient is old or feeble. 

Sprain of Extreme Severity. —In sprains of extreme de¬ 
grees of severity there is marked pain and swelling, and a great 
deal of abnormal motion, amounting to a partial dislocation. One 
often suspects a fracture of one malleolus, although it may be 
impossible to prove this without a radiographic examination. 

The plan of treatment is as follows: One should elevate the 
limb and apply hot fomentations to relieve the pain, and keep 
them hot with hot water bags, which can be changed from time 
to time without disturbing the wet cloths. The limb should be 
fixed by sandbags, not too tightly filled. Two or three times a 
day the dressing should be removed, and gentle massage given 





496 INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 

(ML. i 

without disturbing the joint. A bed rest should keep the clothes 
from touching the foot. On the third, fourth, or fifth day, when 
the swelling has somewhat subsided, the leg should he shaved, 
covered with sheet wadding, and encased in a plaster of Paris 
bandage from the toes to the knee, the foot being held at a right 
angle. The patient may go about on crutches. 

After two weeks the cast should be removed, a hot douche 
and massage should be given twice a day, and passive and active 
motion begun. The patient should bear his full weight on the 
injured foot in three or four weeks, according to the degree of 
injury. 

Molded gypsum splints may also be used. (See Pigs. 270 and 
271, p. 506.) They are easily removed for massage and can be 
reapplied by the patient. 

Recurrent Sprain of Ankle—The ankle is especially liable to 
a resprain, and hence it is desirable in many instances to advise 
the patient to protect the joint long after the external evidences 
of injury have disappeared. Many persons prefer a woven rub¬ 
ber anklet, or one made of leather, which laces up, to the daily 
application of a bandage. Such apparatus is more serviceable 
at the ankle than at the knee, as the more limited range of motion 
at the ankle and the different shape of the parts make it easy to 
keep it in place. 

of Qj Lateral Ligament of tlie !Knee. —This in- 

jury is usually produced by direct violence. A heavy body, for 
instance, a falling sack of grain, strikes against the leg or knee, 
when the foot and body are fixed. The result is an undue stretch- 
mg of tlie ligaments on the opposite side of the knee, with rupture. 
If this rupture is not too extensive, the patient can walk about, 
but he is caieful to use the limb in such a manner as to prevent 
strain being brought on the ruptured ligament. Pain after this 
injury is slight if the limb is kept at rest. There is often very 
little eccliymosis, and the swelling may not be excessive. The 
pathognomonic symptom is an abnormal lateral motion, best shown 
as follows: Let the patient lie on his back, or lean back in a 
chair, with both legs at rest in a horizontal position. Test the 
lateral mobility of the sound knee by grasping the leg firmly 
above the ankle, and using the other hand as a fulcrum placed 
against the patient’s knee. Test first the internal and then the ex- 



FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR 


497 


ternal ligament. Repeat the tests on the injured side. If one of 
the ligaments is ruptured moderate force will swing the leg away 
from its normal line to an appreciable angle, perhaps twenty or 
thirty degrees. W hen the leg is relaxed it swings back into line 
with a peculiar snap, which is easily remembered if it has once 
been felt. It is something like the snap with which the lid of a 
match-box closes, if there is a spring in its hinge. Treatment 
is similar to that for severe sprain, plus a longer protection of 
the ligament by a posterior splint. The patient should remain in 
bed a few days, sit about or walk with crutches for ten days more, 
and wear a splint for another two weeks at least. Massage and 
passive motions are indicated after the first week or so. 

Dislocations. —Dislocations of the larger joints of the lower 
extremity are rare and serious lesions, which are not seen in ambu¬ 
lant practise. 

Dislocation of one of the toes sometimes occurs. In diagno¬ 
sis and treatment it closely resembles dislocation of a finger, which 
see (p. 357). 

Fracture of the Femur.— Most of the fractures of the 
femur are too serious to find a place in a text-book on minor 
surgery except in so far as they have to be considered in the 
differential diagnosis of sprains and contusions. It is, however, 
possible for a patient to fracture the femur and yet walk about. 
Ibis is sometimes the case after impacted fracture, and walking 
is possible after fracture of the great trochanter. 

Fracture of the Great Trochanter. —This rare injury 
is caused by a fall or blow directed against the great trochanter, 
a part of which may then be separated from the femur, remain¬ 
ing attached to the gluteal tendon. 

The diagnosis is not difficult. There is a local pain, swelling, 
and ecchymosis. The patient walks guardedly, and gets up and 
sits down with pain and difficulty. Palpation reveals the loosened 
fragment, which may also be shown in a good radiograph (Pig. 
207). 

All the treatment that is necessary is to press the trochanter 
firmly against the shaft of the femur by a strip of adhesive plas¬ 
ter and to keep the patient in bed two or three weeks. The 
bone united firmly in the case of the patient referred to in 
Figure 267. 


498 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


Fracture of Patella. —The patella may be broken by direct 
violence, as by a fall on the knee; or by indirect violence, when a 
sudden strain is brought upon the tendon of the quadriceps ex¬ 
tensor. In the first case the fracture may be single or multiple, 
and the separation of the fragments slight or extreme, and there 



Fig. 267 . —Radiograph of a Male Patient Who Fractured His Right Great 

Trochanter by a Fall. The uninjured trochanter is shown for comparison. 

may or may not be rupture of the strong aponeuroses at the sides 
of the patella. These aponeuroses form so important a part of 
the extension apparatus that if they are not ruptured the patient 
may be able to extend his leg. 

If the fracture is due to indirect violence, it is almost always 
single and transverse, the lateral aponeuroses are apt to be torn, 
and the gap between the fragments is proportionately wide. Diag¬ 
nosis is usually easily made by the history of the accident, by 
direct palpation of the fragments, by the presence of a gap which 
is lessened by pressure together of the fragments and increased 
when the leg is flexed, and by the inability of the patient to extend 
the flexed leg, although this can be readily performed by passive 
motion. Accompanying signs are swelling, ecchymosis (often 







FRACTURE OF PATELLA 


499 



absent), and fluid in the joint (either serum or blood). If the 
swelling is not great, crepitus may he obtained by crowding the 
fragments together, and moving one on the other. 

Treatment.— The limb should he extended on a molded pos¬ 
terior splint for four weeks, more or less, during which time the 
fragments should he held in apposition in one of four ways: (a) 
by strips of adhesive plaster, or ( b ) by a suitably dimpled plaster 
of Paris circular bandage, or (c) by suture of the aponeuroses at 
the sides of and in front of the patella, or (d) by suture of the 
fragments themselves. If the fragments cannot be approximated 
digitally, neither (a) nor (b) is a suitable mode of treatment. 

The posterior splint necessary, if plan (a), (c), or (d) is 
followed, is best made of plaster of Paris, according to direc¬ 
tions on page 589. The 
leg should be fully ex¬ 
tended when the splint 
is applied. When the 
splint has set, it should 
be removed, fully dried, 
and covered with can¬ 
ton flannel. It may be 
bandaged to the limb, 
or held in place with 
several pieces of broad 
tape or light webbing, 
brought together in 
front with buckles. 

If plan (a) is fol¬ 
lowed, the limb is 
shaved about the knee, 
the fragments are digi¬ 
tally approximated, and 
fixed by two strips of 
adhesive plaster, one 
passing below the pa¬ 
tella and anchored on 
the sides of the thigh, 
the other passing above the patella and anchored on the sides of 
the leg (Fig. 268). If these tilt the fragments a third strip may 
34 


ig. 268.—A Demonstration of the Method of 
Applying Strips of Adhesive Plaster to 
Approximate the Fragments After Frac¬ 
ture of the Patella. 




500 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


be applied directly across the patella. The posterior splint should 
then be applied. 

If plan (b) is followed, the fragments are approximated digi¬ 
tally by the surgeon, while the assistant applies a circular plaster 
of Paris bandage from above the ankle to the upper part of the 
thigh. The limb is kept in full extension by lifting it and placing 
the foot on a box some twelve inches above the level of the bed 
or table on which the patient is lying. Sheet wadding or some 
similar material is evenly spread over the whole limb. As the as¬ 
sistant carries the bandage across the knee, the surgeon carefully 
removes his lingers, one at a time, and quickly replaces them, thus 
keeping up pressure at the points at which he has found that he 
can best overcome displacement of the fragments. This procedure 
is repeated as often as the circular turns of the plaster bandage 
pass the knee. When the splint is completed there will be in it four 
or more depressions made by the finger-tips, and so disposed that 
they prevent the fragments of patella from becoming separated. 

The accumulation of much fluid in the knee-joint will inter¬ 
fere with the successful employment of plans (a) and ( b ). The 
pressure of a rubber or other elastic bandage may cause its resorp¬ 
tion in a few days. If not, it may be evacuated with a medium 
sized trocar and cannula, or better, through a quarter-inch incision. 
The risk of infection is extremely slight if the skin is w-ashed with 
soap and water, turpentine, and alcohol, and the instrument is 
boiled and its point not handled. Local anesthesia suffices. The 
opening should be made at the side of the knee, and far enough 
back to be out of the way of the adhesive strips. 

Treatment by Operation: Plans (c) and ( d ).—If digital 
approximation of the fragments is impossible on account of the 
presence of fascia between the fragments or for any other reason, 
ligamentous or bony suture should be advised—plans (c) and (d). 
Both of these entail the risk of sepsis, which in the knee may be 
serious; but in favorable cases the period of recovery is lessened 
and the union of the fragments is stronger than in many of the 
cases treated without operation. Therefore, operation is advisable 
even in many cases in which digital approximation can be achieved 
A transverse incision of the skin, removal of blood clots from the 
joint cavity, and suture of the lateral aponeurotic tears and of the 
gap in the strong fascia anterior to the patella itself, with twenty 



FRACTURE OF THE TIBIA 


501 


day chromic catgut, is the simplest operation. But good results 
have been obtained by suture of the bony fragments, or by passing 
a string around the patella, or by other methods of approximation. 
The materials used have been wire and silk, as well as absorbable 
materials. The skin wound is to be sutured without drainage, 
and a posterior splint applied. 

In the after treatment, massage is a valuable aid. It may be 
begun as early as the fourth day, care being exercised not to pull 
upon the fragments. Passive motions may be employed in two 
weeks, but they should be slight in extent until there is plainly 
union between the fragments. By these methods stiffness of the 
knee may be avoided. They cannot be employed if plan (5) is 
adopted, and hence the circular splint should be cut away in two 
weeks, and a new one applied, or a change in treatment may then 
be made to plan ( a )—the use of adhesive strips. 

A patient should walk with a shortened posterior splint in four 
weeks, hut he should not attempt to bring strain upon the fractured 
patella, and such motions as kneeling or using that limb for stair 
climbing should be forbidden for three months. 

Fracture of the Tibia. —Delayed Union.—Fracture of the 
tibia and fibula coexisting, and fracture of the tibia alone above 
the malleolus, are excluded from ambulant practise. Patients with 
such lesions mav come for treatment some weeks after the in- 

ts 

jury, the bones not yet having united properly. It is therefore well 
to consider the treatment of non-union of the tibia. Palpation 
will reveal the plane of the fracture. The leg should be grasped 
firmly above the fracture with one hand, and below the fracture 
with the other. By a firm, quick motion, the broken bone should 
be tested for abnormal mobility. This test should be applied both 
laterally and anteroposteriorly. The position of the fragments, 
when at rest and when the patient bears weight on the injured limb, 
should also be noted. All of these facts should be recorded for 
future comparison. Radiographs should also be made in two 
planes. 

Treatment. —The treatment will depend upon the conditions 
present. If the deformity is not extreme, or can be manually 
corrected, and if the fractured ends of the bone are in contact or 
can be brought into contact without producing too great deformity, 
union mav be obtained by the following plan of treatment. Make 



502 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


two lateral molded plaster of Paris splints to reach from the 
ankle nearly to the knee. Each should be broad enough to cover 
about one-third of the circumference of the limb. This gives them 
a firmer grasp, and the curve adds greatly to their strength. When 
they have set they should he removed, dried, covered with canton 
flannel, and affixed to the leg with cloth straps and buckles. Every 
day, or every second day, the fractured ends of the bone should 
be ground together by the surgeon for two or three minutes or more, 
according to the temperament of the patient. This is not so painful 
a procedure as it sounds, and no anesthetic is required. The 
splints should he firmly strapped in place, and the patient en¬ 
couraged to walk about with crutches, yet hearing much of his 
weight on the injured leg. This treatment should he repeated 
until there is tenderness and swelling at the site of fracture. The 
grinding of the hones together may then he performed less often, 
allowing time between treatments for the tenderness to subside 
somewhat, but not enough for all signs of irritation to disappear. 
In two or three weeks increased callus interferes with the grind- 
ing of the bones on each other, and this part of the treatment may 
then be omitted; but the patient should increase his exercise, and 
bear more weight on the limb. In many cases a complete bony 
union will result in one or two - months. 

If there is bad angular deformity which cannot be corrected 
manually, or if the ends of the tibia are plainly separated, and 
cannot be brought into contact except by producing an angular 
deformity, as is often the case after compound fracture with loss 
of bone (non-union after operation), the treatment above outlined 
is not indicated, and operation must be considered. 

It is also well to remember that a united fibula may keep 
apart the ends of a fractured tibia, especially if there is loss of 
the tibial substance. The author has seen two cases of failure 
aftei operation for non-union of the tibia, which were clearly due 
to this cause, as in both cases the condition was the same. There 
had been no resection of the fibula, and the cut ends of the tibia 
could not be approximated except by producing a bad angular 
deformity. 

Fracture of the Fibula. —Fracture of the shaft of the 
fibula is usually the result of direct violence, but the bone may be 
broken near its upper extremity by a sudden pull of the biceps 


FRACTURE OF THE FIBULA 


503 


muscle. As the greater portion of the fibula is covered by thick 
muscles, fracture of its shaft may exist without the usual signs of 
swelling, ecchymosis, and crepitus. Palpation is unsatisfactory, 
and the patient may be able to walk. Hence it is no uncommon 
thing for a fracture of this character to be overlooked. Positive 
signs are shortening of the fibula, measured from end to end, pain 
on direct pressure, pain on pressure upon the bone at a distance 
from the point of fracture, and absolute inability of the patient to 
lift the heel from the floor while bearing weight on the injured 
limb. The reason of this is obvious. The heel is raised in part by 
the action of the flexor longus pollicis, and longus and brevis pero- 
nei muscles. These muscles arise from almost the whole length of 
the fibula, and their contraction disturbs the fragments of the 
broken bone. If the break is in the lower part of the shaft of the 
fibula, displacement of fragments, crepitus, and false motion can 
usually be made out in addition to the signs given above. 

Treatment.— If the patient chooses to remain in bed, no 
apparatus is necessary other than small pillows or sandbags to 
steady the leg, and a cradle to keep the clothes from resting on 
the limb; but in most cases it is desirable to apply a light plaster 
of Paris bandage from the toes to the knee, with the foot at a right 
angle to the leg. The following day the patient may go about on 
crutches. During the first week, when sitting or lying, the foot 
should be kept at least as high as the hips in order to counteract 
the tendency to swell. 

The immediate application of a circular bandage of plaster of 
Paris is often advised against on account of the risk of swelling in 
a constricted space. When the injury is a slight one, as in frac¬ 
ture of the fibula without severe contusion, this risk is slight. In 
all cases, however, the toes should be left uncovered for inspection. 
They should remain warm, and the circulation should remain 
active. The blood should return quickly to the surface when pres¬ 
sure made with the finger is removed. Such inspection should 
be repeated every few hours for a day or so, especially if the 
patient complains of a tight feeling or pain. In cases of doubt, it 
is better to cut the splint down the front. It need not be removed. 

After the second day the patient may go about with crutches, 
and may begin to bear a little weight on the foot after the third 
week, increasing the pressure gradually, but not bearing full weight 



504 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


on the foot for at least four weeks. The splint may be discarded 
in two or three weeks after the fracture, according to the cir¬ 
cumstances. 

Fractures of the Tibia and Fibula (Either or Both), 
Involving the Ankle-joint. —These fractures are almost in¬ 
variably due to indirect violence. They often follow slips and 
tails on the street. Many of them would be sprains except for 
the close mortising of the astragalus between the two malleoli. 
Many of these fractures are serious injuries, but others permit the 
jDatient to walk. It is necessary therefore to consider the whole 
class. The chief end of treatment after a fracture is to restore 
function by obtaining (1) bony union of the fragments in good 
position, and (2) mobility of the adjacent joints. In the treat¬ 
ment of fracture involving the ankle-joint, the second object has 
often been overlooked; and that is the more unfortunate, since 
non-union of a malleolus is very rare. 

Diagnosis.— Diagnosis in these cases should include not only 
the determination of a fracture and its approximate position, but 
also the change, if such exists, in the relation of the three bones 
forming the joint, namely the two malleoli and the astragalus. 
Upon the recognition and the correction of such displacement de- 
pends the restoration of the function of the limb. In most cases 
it is well to examine the patient under an anesthetic, and when 
possible to make radiographs of the ankle in both anteroposterior 
and lateral directions. 

Displacement, if it exists, is usually lateral and backward. 
There is often great swelling in these cases, a part of which is due 
to the accumulation of fluid, blood, or serum in the ankle-joint. 
This masks the bony deformity, and often makes it impossible 
to reduce the bones properly if the patient is first seen a day or 
two after the injury. 

Treatment. The old plan, and one that is still advocated 
by many, was to tie the leg up in a pillow, or with side splints, 
for a few days until the acute swelling subsides. While good 
results have many times been obtained in this way, the treatment 
is irrational. It is far better to put the broken bones at once 
into as nearly normal relations as possible. At a later day, if it is 
seen on examination that the replacement can be made even more 
perfect, the surgeon should not hesitate to reapply the splints, 



FRACTURES INVOLVING THE ANKLE 


505 


differently padded, or to make new splints. If one has at com¬ 
mand a good X-ray machine, the swelling of the soft parts will 
not prevent a correct diagnosis; hut even without this help one can 
usually judge of the character of the displacement, and manipu¬ 
late the parts accordingly. The best plan of treatment is then 
as follows: 

Having determined the site of fracture and the degree of dis¬ 
placement, the surgeon should manipulate the foot until con¬ 
vinced that it is brought into a correct position. Sometimes it is 
only necessary to support the weight of the leg by a firm grasp 
of the toes, in order to prevent a recurrence of the deformity. 
A better plan in most cases is to grasp the heel between the thumb 



Fig. 269.—Correct Method of Hording Foot and Leg, During the Application 
of a Plaster of Paris Splint in Cases of Fracture of One or Both 
Malleoli. 

and two fingers, and while making traction with this hand in the 
long axis of the leg, to flex the ankle to a right angle by a firm 
grasp of the toes (Tig. 269) ; or one may correct lateral or poste¬ 
rior displacement by grasping the leg with one hand and the heel 
with the other. In both of these ways the foot can be flexed to 
a right angle with the leg, and slightly inverted. According to 
circumstances, the surgeon will hold the leg or entrust it to an 
assistant. If his assistant knows how to make and apply a plaster 




506 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


of Paris splint, and can bandage it to the leg, the surgeon should 
hold the limb in a correct position, as this is the more important 



Fig. 270 . —Strap Splints for Fracture of the Malleoli—in Position. 


task. The making of strap splints is described on page 707. In 
this case two are required, each about twenty-four inches long, and 
three or four inches wide. Three roller bandages will make the 



Fig. 271 . Strap Splints for Fracture of the Malleoli—Removed. 


two. I he posterior is first applied, and should reach from the up¬ 
per pai t of the calf to the tips of the toes. !Nfixt a lateral splint, 








FRACTURE OF THE ASTRAGALUS 


507 


either internal or external, starting at the same level, is carried 
down the leg, across the middle of the sole, and then across the 
dorsum of the foot, until it reaches itself, after having encircled 
the foot (Fig. 270). These are bandaged in place with a gauze 
bandage. The person who is holding the foot in a correct position 
should not let go until the plaster has set—ten or fifteen minutes, 
if it is fresh. When dry the splints may he removed (Fig. 271), 
lined with canton flannel, and reapplied; hut a safer plan is to 
leave them undisturbed for at least a week, as the lateral splint 
never gets quite such a firm grip again after it has been removed. 

If one prefers a circular plaster of Paris splint for this class 
of injuries, its application is described on page 703. The correct 
holding of the foot and leg is equally important. 

The object of flexing the foot to a right angle with the leg is * 
twofold. This brings the wide portion of the astragalus between 
the malleoli, and thus insures a slot wide enough for free motion 
of the astragalus in walking. Secondly, if the ankle-joint should 
be stiff, the patient can stand with his heel on the floor, and there¬ 
fore walk, not gracefully, hut without pain. If the ankle is stiff 
in an extended position, equally good walking is impossible except 
by building up the heel of the shoe on the affected side, and the 
heel and sole of the other shoe. 

The slight inversion of the foot is to prevent the formation of 
a traumatic flatfoot, which may result if the foot is everted. This 
inversion should not he excessive. 

The patient may go about on crutches from the start in cases 
without displacement, and after a few days in the graver injuries. 
The injured foot should he kept elevated when the patient is sit¬ 
ting. After the first week the lateral splint at least should be 
removed for daily bathing and massage. This will add greatly to 
the comfort of the patient and hasten the recovery. The patient 
should bear some weight on the injured limb in four or six 
weeks, and the full weight in from six to eight weeks. There are 
numerous instances of recovery delayed beyond these periods, in 
which the functions were ultimately completely restored. 

Fracture of the Astragalus. —The astragalus is broken by 
falls upon the feet, especially if the foot is sharply flexed against 
the anterior surface of the tibia. In such a case the fiacture will 
probably extend through the neck of the astragalus, separating the 



508 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


head from the body. One-half the bone may then he dislocated 
from its normal position. 

The symptoms complained of are pain when an attempt is 
made to move the foot or to hear any weight npon the heel. If 
there is no dislocation of a fragment, the diagnosis may he ex¬ 
tremely difficult. It is desirable, therefore, to make radiographs 
of both feet for a careful comparison. 

Treatment consists in reduction of the fragments. If there 
is marked displacement, reduction can seldom he effected with¬ 
out an operation. If the deformity is slight, the limb should 
be immobilized, with the foot at right angle to the leg and slightly 
inverted. A light plaster of Paris circular bandage from the 
base of the toes nearly to the knee accomplishes the objects of 
treatment admirably. In a few days this should be split down 
the front, removed for daily massage and passive motion, and 
reapplied. 

Prognosis depends chiefly upon the amount of displacement. 
If this is slight, a normal gait may be regained in two or three 
months. If the displacement is considerable, the function of the 
ankle-joint is likely to be permanently impaired. If reduction 
cannot be accomplished by manipulation, the displaced fragment 
should be removed. It is worth remembering that good function 
has been obtained after the removal of even the whole astragalus. 

Fracture of the Os Calcis. —The .os calcis is broken by 
falls or jumps from high places, the patient striking squarely upon 
his heels. One or both bones may be broken. The plane of frac¬ 
ture may be either vertical or horizontal, or oblique, or irregular. 

The chief symptoms complained of are pain and an inability 
to bear the weight on the heel. Examination will show a distinct 
increased bony thickness beneath the malleoli, as compared with 
the uninjured side. There is tenderness on pressure, and crepitus 
can often be obtained by grasping the malleoli with one hand and 
manipulating the base of the os calcis; or the anterior portion 
of the bone may be grasped with one hand and the posterior por¬ 
tion manipulated with the other. In some cases, when the acute 
swelling has subsided, the plantar surface of the heel is dis¬ 
tinctly nearer the tips of the malleoli than on the uninjured side. 

Treatment.— The foot should be placed in a correct position 
—that is, flexed to ninety degrees or less, and slightly inverted— 


AMPUTATIONS 


509 


and held in this position by a light plaster of Paris bandage 
extending nearly to the knee. The patient should go about on 
crutches, without touching the affected limb to the floor. No other 
treatment is necessary. In two or three weeks the splint should 
be removed, and passive and active motion encouraged. 

The pain after fracture of the os calcis varies greatly. Some 
patients suffer little, while others have some pain upon using the 
foot months after the injury. 

If fragments of the os calcis are badly displaced, they should 
be removed, the prognosis after operation being favorable. The 
incision may be made on either side, low enough down to avoid 
injury to the vessels and nerves and tendons which pass under the 
malleoli. 

Fracture of the Metatarsals. —Fracture of one or more 
of the metatarsal bones is almost always due to direct violence, such 
as the passage of a wheel over the foot or the fall of a weight upon 
it. The accompanying swelling, and possibly wounds of the soft 
parts, mask the fracture of the bone, but such a fracture can usually 
be made out by careful examination. The symptoms are swelling, 
ecchymosis, and pain. The pain is increased by pressure against 
the head of the affected metatarsal as well as by pressure directly 
upon the site of fracture. If the head of the bone is grasped and 
manipulated, pain is also increased, and often crepitus is produced. 
The patient can usually walk by bearing his weight upon his heel. 
A constricting bandage, either of adhesive strips or, better, of 
plaster of Paris, extending above the ankle, will give the patient 
considerable relief. Recovery is usually complete in one or two 
months. 

Fracture of the Phalanges. —The bones of the toes are 
broken as the result of direct violence, and the fracture is often 
a compound one. The usual signs are present and are easily 

elicited. 

Fracture of the great toe can be treated by splints. If one 
of the other toes is broken, it may be immobilized and defoimity 
in it reduced by weaving rubber adhesive strips over and under 

the toes (Fig. 300, p. 555). 

Amputations. —Most of the amputations of the lower extrem¬ 
ity are major operations, and are followed by rest in bed, at least 
until the flaps have united; but as compound fractures of the toes 


510 


INJURIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


are common in ambulant practise, a few words as to minor amputa¬ 
tions will not be out of place. What lias been said on amputation 
of the fingers (p. 390) is true for amputations of the toes. They 
should not be sacrificed for the sake of immediate appearance, al¬ 
though it is often well to lose a phalanx to gain primary union. 
However, a part of a toe has nothing like the value of a part of 
a finger. It is of the highest importance, however, to preserve the 
whole of the first and fifth metatarsal bones, because of their func¬ 
tion in completing the arch of the foot and because of the muscular 
attachments to them. If the great toe is amputated, the tendon 
of the long flexor should be firmly sutured in the attachments of 
the short flexors to the metatarsal. If there is plenty of skin for 
the flaps the suture line should be kept away from the plantar 
surface of the toe by making a large plantar flap. In amputation 
through the metatarsophalangeal joint an oval incision may be 
chosen, or a long plantar flap may be sutured to a short dorsal flap. 


CHAPTER XVIII 



Fig. 272.—Frost-bite of Both Feet, Three Weeks after Injury, Showing a 
Zone of Slight Injury with Loss of Epithelium (Now Restored), a Zone 
of Deeper Injury with Loss of the Whole Skin (Now a Granulating 
Area), and a Zone of Total Gangrene. Patient a woman aged fifty-six years. 

511 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


EFFECTS OF HEAT AND COLD 


Frost-bite. —Slight exposures of the limbs of healthy persons 
to cold produce only temporary discomfort. Anemic and ill nour¬ 
ished individuals suffer from subsequent pain and burning of the 
exposed parts called chilblains. Prophylactic treatment consists 
in the administration of iron and other tonics, in the wearing of 
warm loose clothing, in the improvement of local circulation by 
cold bathing, etc. 





512 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


When any part of the body has been chilled or frozen its 
temperature should be very gradually raised to normal. The 
more severe the frost, the greater the importance of this rule. 
Hence it is generally understood that a limb which is frozen 
solid should be thawed out by rubbing with ice or snow, or 
by immersion in ice-water. Even in less severe cases the per¬ 
son should keep away from the fire on entering the house, and 
should bathe the affected part with cold water. Painful spots may 
be painted with tincture of iodine. 

The importance of conservative treatment in the severer de¬ 
grees of frost-bite has been emphasized on page 397. The accom¬ 
panying illustrations (Eig. 272 and Eig. 273) show most graph¬ 
ically how much may be gained by delay. The new growth of 
epithelium and granulations made it possible to amputate less 
tissue and still gain union of the flaps. All of the tarsal bones 
were preserved in the right foot, while in the left foot it was 



Fig. 273. Frost-bite of Both Feet Showing the Results after Delayed Am¬ 
putation. The patient (same subject as Fig. 272) walks easily without a cane. 

necessary to remove the cuneiforms. The patient notices a dis¬ 
tinct difference in the stability of the two feet on this account. 
At the time of the amputation even these flaps were not entirely 




GANGRENE 


513 



covered with epithelium. The deeper tissues united promptly, 
but the granulating areas required many weeks to become covered 
by epithelium, in part derived 
from skin-grafts, and in part 
from lateral growth from the 
existing epithelium. This is, 
however, time well spent, since 
the useful feet obtained are far 
superior to the stumps remain¬ 
ing after a Syme’s or even a 
Chopart’s amputation. Com¬ 
pare what is said below, in the 
paragraphs on gangrene. 

Burns. —The dorsum of the 
foot is often burned by hot wa¬ 
ter, etc., spilled upon it. More 
serious burns of the lower ex¬ 
tremity are due to the skirts 


r 


catching fire. The burns in 
such cases are most severe on 
the posterior surface from the 
knee to the hip (Fig. 274). 

Directions for the treatment 
of burns are given on page 26. 

Gangrene. —For clinical 
purposes cases of gangrene of 
the toes or foot should be di¬ 
vided into two classes: In one 
class the cause is external—a 
crush, a burn, carbolic acid, 

frost-bite, etc., and is usually not repeated. In the other class 
the cause is internal—endarteritis, diabetes, Raynaud's disease, 
etc. In this class the cause is more or less continuous. In the 
first class palliative treatment should be carried out until the line 
of demarcation is well established. The superficial gangrene in 
these cases is almost always more extensive than the deeper gan¬ 
grene, so that by delay good flaps may be obtained for a lesser 
amputation than at first appeared possible (Fig. 275). 

The reverse is often true in gangrene due to a constitutional 


. * 

.-A 


Fig. 274.—Burns of the Back of the 
Leg and Thigh of a Child Caused 
by Clothing Catching Fire. Pho¬ 
tograph four weeks after injury. 
Note that a few deep groups of epi¬ 
thelial cells have escaped injury, and 
have grown up so as to form islands 
in the granulating area. 






514 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 



disorder. Then one has to do with a condition which tends to 
progress. Hence amputation should not be too long delayed, and 
when performed, it should he at a sufficiently high level not only 

to insure union of the 
flaps, but to render im¬ 
probable a recurrence 
of the gangrene within 
a short time. 

The early manifes¬ 
tation of gangrene from 
an internal cause is a 
venous congestion, 
sometimes accompanied 
with blisters extending 
part way from the toes 
to the ankle, and usu¬ 
ally a little higher on 
the inner than the out¬ 
er side of the foot. In 
this early stage of the 
trouble hot and cold 
bathing, rubbing, ele¬ 
vation of the foot from 

Fig. 275.—Gangrene of Toe, Possibly from time to time during the 
Frost-bite ; no Diabetes. Duration one 1 i , • 

month. Patient a man aged fifty-two years. ? and most impor 

tant of all, a dry dress¬ 
ing of cotton to prevent loss of heat, will generally postpone the 
gangrene for a considerable time, perhaps for months or even 
years, if the general state of health can he improved. The 
skin under such circumstances is easily destroyed. One should 
avoid the use of counter-irritants, as intractable ulcers may 
easily he produced by them. 


ACUTE INFLAMMATIONS 

While in the upper extremity the hand is especially exposed 
to injury, the foot is protected by the shoe, so that contusions and 
wounds of the lower extremity are oftenest met with in the shin, 
and, owing to poor circulation, lesions at first slight may become 





PHLEBITIS AND THROMBOSIS 


515 


serious. Thus a small cut or scratch may develop into an annoy¬ 
ing ulcer in individuals whose general health is good, while in 
those in whom there coexists chronic systemic trouble or eczema, 
edema, or varicose veins, destructive inflammations are even more 
common. These differences result chiefly from the poorer circula¬ 
tion in the dependent extremity; partly from the fact that the 
parts injured in the two extremities do not usually correspond. 
Thus it is the hand which is most often injured in the upper 
extremity, and the leg in the lower. Infected wounds of the 
forearm behave more nearly as do those of the leg in forming 
local cellulitis and abscess. These remarks apply only to acute 
infections. Syphilis and tuberculosis have their own methods of 
tissue destruction, so that the lesions of such diseases vary little 
whether in the arm or leg. 

Cellulitis. —Cellulitis in the lower extremity is apt to be ac¬ 
companied by an unusual amount of edema on account of the 
poorer circulation in this part of the body. The same may have 
existed before the injury or it may be wholly due to the infection, 
a point which can be settled by comparing the two limbs. To over¬ 
come the edema the patient should lie down most of the time, or 
sit with the affected limb in a horizontal position. A wet dress¬ 
ing is cooling and assists in overcoming the infection. It is bet¬ 
ter not to prevent evaporation by rubber tissue, but to keep the 
gauze wet by pouring water on it every hour or so. Tor the 
further treatment of cellulitis see page 33. Abscess should be 
watched for, and opened early. A large hypodermic needle is a 
most satisfactory means of making an early diagnosis of abscess. 

Lymphangitis. —A superficial lymphangitis with reddened 
vessels traceable as far as the glands in the groin, and correspond¬ 
ing to that Avhich so often occurs in the upper extremity, is seldom 
seen. A deeper lymphangitis, following the veins, and often asso¬ 
ciated with phlebitis and thrombosis, is of more frequent occur¬ 
rence. It is a serious malady, and by extension upward into the 
vena cava, or by embolism, or simply by the intensity of the septic 
process it may cost the patient his life. In view of this fact every 
patient who has a deep lymphangitis of the leg should be treated 
in bed from the time the diagnosis is made. 

Phlebitis and Thrombosis. —Phlebitis or inflammation of 
a vein may develop in a varicose vein (p. 538), and run the course 
35 



516 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


of an acute inflammation without suppuration, or it may be accom¬ 
panied by suppuration, though no visible source of infection be 
present. The first symptoms of phlebitis are pain, heat, redness, 
and swelling; over an area an inch broad and which is more or 
less long, according to the extent of the inflamed vein. The vein 
itself can usually be felt as a tender indurated cord in the center 
of this area. If thrombosis takes place in the vein, the hardness 
of the vessel is more marked, and persists after the tenderness 
and surrounding swelling have subsided. 

The phlebitis may gradually subside without extending fur¬ 
ther, but it usually extends upward either in continuity or skip¬ 
ping a few inches of the vein the process will repeat itself further 
up. Thus a patch of phlebitis in the calf of the leg may be fol¬ 
lowed by another in the thigh, the intervening veins remaining 
normal. Usually, however, it spreads by continuity. 

Treatment.— In the first days phlebitis should be treated by 
rest in bed and an ice-bag. When the acute pain has subsided, 
unguentum ichthyol and a firm bandage make a good dressing. 
The limb should be bathed and moved with caution, even after 
the acute symptoms have passed over. Massage is contraindi¬ 
cated. One does not wish to break up a thrombus and send its 
fragments into the blood-current. 

If the patch of phlebitis is small, a patient may absolutely 
refuse to go to bed. TIis leg should then be treated with unguen¬ 
tum ichthyol and a firm bandage, and he should keep as quiet 
as possible. I he danger in such a case is that the thrombus may 
extend upward, or that a portion being detached may form a fatal 
emholus. Still embolism is a very rare accident in thrombosis of 
the veins of the leg or thigh. 

Suppuration may occur at any time in the history of a throm¬ 
bus, even without any visible break in the skin. If an abscess 
forms, it should be opened. If it is of a sluggish character a short 
incision will suffice. 

Resection of the affected vein has been advocated recently as 
a means of quicker recovery (ten days to two weeks) in non-sup- 
purative cases. I his is a heroic remedy for a. disease which is 
often very mild; but it is especially suited to cases in which the 
varicose veins require removal irrespective of the acute inflam 
mation. 


ABSCESS 


517 



Lymphadenitis. —The femoral or inguinal glands may be¬ 
come inflamed from an infected wound of the leg or foot. Search 
will usually reveal the entrance of the infection. If the wound 
is treated properly, the swelling of the lymph-glands usually sub¬ 
sides. If the glands suppurate, the pus must he evacuated. Re¬ 
moval of the affected gland should he performed when possible, as 
the healing afterward is more prompt than when the gland is 
merely incised. (Compare p. 431.) The incision for either oper¬ 
ation should he strictly longitudinal to avoid injury of the nerves 
and vessels of the groin. The removal of a lymph-gland is always 
a more difficult procedure than the previous examination of the 
parts would indicate. 

The gland is so readily 
palpable that one is 
apt to forget that the 
very fact that it ele¬ 
vates the skin also in¬ 
dicates that the under 
surface of the gland is 
deeply embedded in the 
tissues. Hence the pa¬ 
tient should be given 
a general anesthetic 
before any attempt is 
made to remove the 
gland, especially if it 
is inflamed. 

Abscess. —Super¬ 
ficial abscess in the 
thigh or leg may fol¬ 
low a contused or lac¬ 
erated wound, or it 
may develop from a 
small scratch or from 
the bite of an insect 
(Fig. 276). It is usu¬ 
ally associated with 
much edema and cellulitis, so that the presence of pus is not 
always easy to make out.. In doubtful cases, if there is considerable 


Fig. 276.—Abscess in Front of the Knee from 
an Infection on the Shin. Patient a girl, one 
year old. 






518 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


pain, and particularly if the process is extending in spite of a wet 
dressing and rest to the limb, an incision should he made. A quan¬ 
tity of serum will escape and relieve the tension, even if no pus is 
found. If phlebitis can be ruled out cellulitis in the leg will gen¬ 
erally be found to have a purulent center. (See p. 515.) 

Suppuration about the knee in the form of small boils may 
keep up for a long time, reinfection taking place in a most pro¬ 
voking manner. 

Abscess in the foot may arise from a punctured wound made 
by a wire nail or sliver and from injudicious paring of a corn or 
callus. If the vicinity of such a wound is swollen and tender it 
should be incised and drained. (Compare punctured wound of 
finger, p. 331.) If the punctured wound is in the ball of the 

foot, the pus often col¬ 
lects dorsally and should 
then be evacuated by a 
dorsal incision, either 
with or Avithout a plan¬ 
tar incision through the 
original Avound. It is not 
necessary to connect these 
tAvo incisions; each can 
he treated from its OAvn 
surface of the foot. 

Infected Insect- 
bites—Vagabond’s 
Disease. —The bites of 
the body louse, insignifi¬ 
cant in themselves, cause 
an intense itching, to re¬ 
lieve which the patient 
scratches the skin violent¬ 
ly, making deep abra¬ 
sions. In a healthy per- 

Fig. 277. Ulcers of the Leg, 1 wo Weeks, son with a clean skin in- 

from Pediculosis and Scratching. Pa- * . 

tient a boy aged sixteen years. tection Would not he like¬ 

ly to result; but the per¬ 
sons infested Avith body lice are usually impoverished individuals, 
often weakened hy sickness or alcoholism, or lack of food, and 





CHRONIC ULCER OF THE LEG 


519 


unable to bathe frequently. Hence the scratches often ulcerate— 
especially those made upon the back and legs (Fig. 277). The 
appearances are so uniform that the condition is often spoken of 
as Vagabond’s Disease. 

Treatment consists in the removal and disinfection of the 
clothing by boiling or otherwise, bathing the patient, and the use 
of some antipruritic lotion or salve to control the itching, which 
often lasts long after the insects have ceased to bite. Shallow ulcers 
generally heal promptly; the deeper ones should be treated accord¬ 
ing to principles laid down in the following pages. 

Eczema. Eczema of the leg is of interest to the surgeon be¬ 
cause it so frequently precedes and accompanies chronic ulcer. It 
is usually of the dry papular form, but a weeping eczema is occa¬ 
sionally seen in connection with ulcer of the leg, forming a com¬ 
bination of lesions which tries the skill of the doctor severely. 
The eczema causes itch¬ 
ing, the itching causes 
scratching, the scratch¬ 
ing causes ulceration, 
the ulceration causes 
discharge which irri¬ 
tates the skin and in¬ 
creases the eczema. 

Such conditions, if 
neglected in ill nour¬ 
ished individuals, may 
easily lead to chronic 
ulceration. 

The treatment of 
eczema is given on page 
57. Its treatment, 
when combined with ul¬ 
cer of the leg, is given 
on page 524. 

Chronic Ulcer of 



Fig. 278. —Ulcer of the Leg Occurring in a 
Man Aged Forty Years. 


the Leg. —Both on ac¬ 
count of its frequent 

occurrence among working people, and still more because of its 
duration, chronic ulcer is by far the commonest lesion seen in a 




520 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


surgical dispensary (Fig. 278). Some ulcers can be cured in a 
few weeks, in other cases months of the most faithful treatment 
must elapse before the epithelium can he coaxed over the granu¬ 
lating area. In these difficult cases a single ill chosen dressing, 
or a failure of the patient to come for treatment for a few days, 
or an alcoholic debauch, may wipe out the gain of weeks. In 
dealing with a problem of this character it is evident that a change 
of doctors, or carelessness on the part of the patient, must mate- 



Fig. 279.—Chronic Ulcer Almost Surrounding Leg. 

rially interfere with the success of treatment. Hence there are 
instances of patients who have come to he treated for an ulcer of 
the leg, more or less continuously for many years. Probably most 
of these patients could be cured if they could be regularly treated 
by the same surgeon for a period of six or eight months (Fig. 
279). 

It is at least the opinion of the writer after dressing hundreds 
of these ulcers for weeks together that they can all be healed by 
local ambulant treatment if they are due solely to local causes. 
There are a few ulcers due to constitutional causes in which local 
treatment has no effect, but these are rare exceptions. 

Predisposing Causes. —The constitutional disorders predis¬ 
posing to chronic ulcer of the leg are alcoholism, anemia, diabetes, 
syphilis, and any trouble such as cardiac or nephritic disease, 






CHRONIC ULCER OF THE LEG 


521 


which, causes chronic edema, and any disease of the nervous sys¬ 
tem which affects the nutrition of the skin. Endarteritis, dia¬ 
betes, and some nervous affections produce degenerative processes 
in the toes and feet rather than ulcers of the leg. 

The local conditions which favor chronic ulcer of the leg are 
eczema, edema, dermatitis, and varicose veins. 

Eczema is a prominent factor in many cases, and of secondary 
importance in others. It causes the patient to rub and scratch 
the leg and thus form new ulcers. 

Edema may he soft and easily compressible, disappearing at 
night when the patient lies down and reappearing after he has 
been for some hours on his feet. It may also he of a chronic 
type, almost as hard as a hoard, seriously interfering with the 
local circulation. 

Dermatitis is usually seen only in the early stages of an ulcer, 
or after neglect, or very bad treatment. 

Varicose veins are often spoken of as though they were the 
sole cause of a chronic ulcer. Hence the name u varicose ulcer.” 
This is an erroneous idea, as varicose veins are onlv one factor in 
chronic ulcer; and a chronic ulcer which depends chiefly on vari¬ 
cose veins for its existence is one of the easiest kind to heal, be¬ 
cause the dilatation of the veins can he so readily counteracted 
by a well fitting bandage. The term “ varicose ulcer,” as applied 
indiscriminately to chronic ulcer of the leg is therefore mislead¬ 
ing and should he given up. 

Etiology. —The immediate cause of an ulcer of the leg is usu¬ 
ally a traumatism, such as a blow on the shin or a scratch of the 
finger-nails. Occasionally the traumatism may he so slight that 
the patient cannot explain the beginning of the ulceration; or tlio 
start may he in the spontaneous rupture of a dilated vein. Wrong 
applications or infection of the scratch spread the necrosis of 
the skin and an ulcer is started, which in a few days may destroy 
skin that can he restored only by careful treatment of several 
weeks’ duration (Fig. 280). It may fairly he called a chronic 
ulcer therefore, even from the beginning. 

Treatment. —It is obvious that an ulcer which is largely due 
to unfavorable circulatory conditions is more easily handled if 
the patient can lie up in bed. This should be the first advice to 
those who can afford to follow it. Unfortunately most patients 




522 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 





cannot afford the time for this; so that the problem before the 
surgeon is, in most cases, how to repair the leg while the patient 
is walking about all day, or worse yet, is standing at a wash- 
tub or bench. Let him console himself with the thought that an 

ulcer healed under 
these conditions will 
be likely to remain 
healed with reason¬ 
able care, while one 
healed in bed mav 
easily break down 
when the patient goes 
about, unless the 
patient is especially 
careful to guard 
against the change 
in circulation when 
he leaves the bed. 
This is one reason 
why ulcers closed by 
skin grafts are so apt 


to break down again. 

Since so many 
factors may contrib¬ 
ute to keep a chronic 
ulcer of the leg from 


Fig. 280. —Ulcer of Leg two Weeks from Scratch; 
Spread by Vaseline Dressing. Patient a man 
aged thirty-three years. 


healing, it is plain 
that the treatment 
must be different not 
only for different patients, but also for any given patient, ac¬ 
cording to the appearance of the ulcer. When a single remedy 
is advocated as a sure cure for all ulcers, it is evident that the 
experience of its advocate is limited, or else his observation is 
careless. The measures here given are intended to combat one 
or more of the conditions which retard recovery. They should 
be combined in a way to meet the symptoms which exist. When 
one measure has been used for a week or so with good effect, and 
then its influence wanes, continued improvement may follow a 
change to another agent of the same class. 








CHRONIC ULCER OF THE LEG 


523 


1. Measures to Overcome Anemia and Chronic Edema .—A 
daily hot bath of the foot and leg for twenty minutes will stimulate 
circulation, and in a few days soften and reduce an old hard 
edema. Besides it cleanses the surrounding skin, lessens the 
itching, and thus reduces the tendency of the patient to scratch 
the leg. Bubbing the leg with a cotton swab saturated with crude 
petroleum will remove discharges and crusts, will soften the skin 
and reduce edema, will alleviate itching, and will not increase 
any existing eczema. 

2. Measures to Cleanse the Ulcer. —The ulcerating surface 
may be wiped with a cotton swab soaked with any mild antiseptic 
solution. If hydrogen peroxid is used, it should he diluted with 
four or eight parts of water. Many ulcers are extremely tender 
when treatment is first begun, and strong peroxid causes sharp 
burning pain. If there is a tendency to eczema one should be 
extremely careful to avoid the application of irritating solutions 
even for cleansing. A swab soaked in crude petroleum is a good 
thing to cleanse such skin. 

3. Measures to Allay Acute Inflammation. —If the skin and 
subcutaneous tissues about the ulcer are inflamed, it is a good 
plan to soak the foot and leg daily for twenty minutes or more 
in a pail of hot carbolic solution (1: 120), and to apply compresses 
wet with carbolic acid in 1: 100 solution, or creolin in 1: 200 
solution, or corrosive sublimate 1: 2,000 solution, or aluminum 
acetate in 1:25 solution. The limb should be bandaged with a 
gauze bandage, and the dressing kept constantly moist by cold 
water poured on the outside of the bandage every hour or two. 
Bo gutta-percha or other impervious material should be wrapped 
about the leg. An outside piece of flannel may be used to keep 
up the warmth if the leg feels cold. This dressing is more suitable 
for warm weather than for cold. 

4. Measures to Stimulate Granulations. —Eight or twelve 
thicknesses of gauze, cut so as to overlap the ulcer on all sides 
by a half-inch, and saturated with red wash (zinc sulphate, gr. x; 
compound tincture of lavender, TTtxv, water oiv), may be kept 
moist by additions of water, or by the application over it of a 
large compress thickly spread with Lassar’s paste or any thick 
salve nonirritating to the surrounding skin. This will keep the 
astringent gauze moist for two days, and does not sweat the under- 




524 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


lying skin, as does rubber tissue. Other solutions, such as creolin, 
1: 200, or nitrate of silver, 1: 100 or 1: 200, may be used to 
saturate the inner gauze. 

Another plan is to apply to the ulcer gauze saturated with 
balsam of Peru, pure or mixed with oil. This balsam gauze 
requires no protective covering, as it does not quickly dry out. 

The granulations are even more powerfully stimulated by 
dusting the ulcer thickly with granular naplithalin before apply¬ 
ing the wet gauze. This powder is antiseptic and does not cake. 

5. Measures to Promote the Growth of Epithelium. —Epi¬ 
thelium will grow rapidly in moisture and warmth, provided there 
is freedom from irritating discharges, a good circulation, and 
granulations which are as nearly as possible on a level with the 
skin. The measures already described in paragraphs 1> 2, 3, and 4 
are calculated to assist therefore in promoting the growth of epi¬ 
thelium. Exuberant granulations are rarely seen in chronic 
ulcers of the leg. If they occur they should be burned lightly by 
touching them in spots with a pencil of silver nitrate, which 
should in no case be applied within one-fourth of an inch of the 
skin margin, since the caustic action spreads somewhat beyond 
the area touched. Under the most favorable conditions epithelium 
can hardly be made to grow in the leg at a faster rate.than one- 
eighth of an inch a week. This would give a month as the shortest 
possible time for the healing of an ulcer of the leg one inch across, 
provided the ulcer involves the whole thickness of the skin, so that 
no islands of epithelium may grow up in the center of the ulcer. 

Occasionally it happens that granulations grow up in little 
tufts and become covered with epithelium (Fig. 281). This gives 
a pebbly appearance to the scar which can still be seen even after 
the epithelium has become of normal thickness. Such an ulcer is 
usually very painful until entirely healed. 

6. Measures to Overcome Itching and Eczema. —Mild dry 
eczema is sufficiently treated by the measures mentioned under 
paragraphs 3 and 4. For excessive itching nothing is better than 
sponging with a solution of carbolic acid, 1: 20. If the eczema is 
the chief feature, it may be treated by cleansing with crude petro¬ 
leum, dusting freely with lycopodium, and covering with com¬ 
presses soaked in crude petroleum; or compresses soaked with 
aluminum acetate solution, 1: 25, may be applied and kept con- 



CHRONIC ULCER OF THE LEG 


525 


stantly wet with water; or other measures suitable to the treatment 
of eczema elsewhere in the body may he employed. 

Eczema occuring at the junction of the skin of the sole and 
that of the dorsum of the foot leads to ulceration that is very slow 



Fig. 281. —Chronic Ulcer of Leg with Proliferation, Giving it a Pebbly Ap¬ 
pearance even when Healed. Patient a woman aged sixty-three years. 

to heal. Therefore one should he very exact with the early treat¬ 
ment. Compare perforating ulcer, page 529. 

7. Measures to Reduce Venous Engorgement and Edema .—In 
all cases in which edema or venous engorgement is present, 
whether or not large varicose veins are prominent, elastic bandag¬ 
ing is of great importance. While the ulcer is still open, a rub¬ 
ber bandage or stocking is not permissible. Elastic compression 




526 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


may be applied outside of the dressing selected, by means of an 
even layer of non-absorbent cotton and a cotton bandage or by a 
flannel bandage or a stockinet bandage. In any case the bandage 
should begin at the base of the toes and extend above the calf, omit¬ 
ting the heel unless the ulcer is situated below a malleolus. The 
successful application of a bandage of this sort requires consid¬ 
erable practise. The test of a good bandage is not in the pattern 
made by its turns, but in the smoothness with which they lie one 
over the other, felt by passing the hand down the back of the 
leg after the bandage is complete. If all the turns press evenly 
the bandage will remain in place, even though the patient is con¬ 
stantly walking about, and when removed there will be no ridges 
in the edematous leg to indicate where one edge of the bandage was 
drawn tighter than the other. The best type of bandage to apply 
is shown in Figure 396, page 682. 

8. General Measures to be Observed During the Healing of 
an Ulcer. —Any habit of the patient or constitutional condition 
that exerts an unfavorable influence on nutrition and repair 
should be corrected if possible. The patient is better without 
much alcohol, tobacco, or tea. Constipation often needs to be 
corrected. Circular garters have been severely criticized, but 
probably have little effect in producing varicose veins. If possi¬ 
ble, the patient should rest for an hour or two a day in a hori¬ 
zontal position. At least he can make a practise of putting the 
affected leg upon another chair whenever he sits down. If there 
is good reason to believe that an ulcer is syphilitic (Fig. 282), 
mercury and iodid of potash should be administered. It is a mis¬ 
take, however, to infer that every chronic ulcer occurring in a pa¬ 
tient who has had syphilis at some period of his life is syphilitic. 

9. Measures to Prevent the Recurrence of an Ulcer. —A large 
proportion of the chronic ulcers seen in a surgical clinic are recur¬ 
rent. They have been healed once or many times, have remained 
so for weeks or months, and usually on account of the neglect of 
the patient, the skin in or near the site of the old ulcer has broken 
down, and a minute ulcer forms. Sometimes the patient has the 
good sense to come immediately for treatment; usually he treats 
it at home with lard or vaseline, or worst of all carbolic salve, and 
the ulcer rapidly increases in size and is an inch or more in diam¬ 
eter when first seen by the surgeon. 



CHRONIC ULCER OF THE LEG 


527 


This sad relapse can usually be avoided if the patient will, 
firstly, bathe the healed leg daily or at least twice a week with 
soap and water, dry it, and rub it thoroughly with crude petro- 



Fig. 282.—Ulcers of Leg due to Syphilis. 


leum or any bland ointment, wiping away the excess of grease; 
and, secondly, will wear an elastic stocking or bandage every day 
of his life. If an elastic rubber stocking is chosen, it should ex¬ 
tend from the base of the toes to the knee, omitting the heel. Such 
a stocking costs from $2 to $8, according to the material (cotton, 
linen, or silk) and the manufacturer. Under it should be worn a 
thin white cotton stocking. This protects the leg from the rub¬ 
ber, and the rubber from the perspiration. An ordinary stocking 
is worn outside of the elastic one. With care such a stocking will 
last six months. 

Another plan is to bandage the leg with flannel. Two yards 







528 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


of coarse white flannel (every thread wool) are either torn or, 
better, cut on the bias, into strips 3 inches wide. These strips are 
sewed together, end to end, so as to make two roller bandages, each 
about six yards long. Before the patient leaves the bed in the 
morning one of these bandages is to be applied from the toe to 
the knee, omitting the heel, and worn till bedtime. One of the 
two bandages should be washed every week. This method is 
cheaper and cleaner than the other, and gives in the hand of a 
person of ordinary dexterity a more even compression of the leg 
than the rubber stocking, the latter being at first too tight, and 
soon stretching so as to become too loose. Cotton elastic bandages 
are useful for short periods but they stretch out in a few weeks. 

10. Operative Treatment .—Chronic ulcer of the leg may be 
treated by skin-grafting, but the results are not always good, either 
because the base of the ulcer does not attach the graft to itself, or 
because it affords such poor nourishment that a part or the whole 
of the graft breaks down within a few weeks. Before attempting 
skin-grafting the circulation in the vicinity of the ulcer should 
be improved by bathing the leg with hot water and giving it a good 
rub once or twice daily. Even after a thorough preparation of 
this sort, the base of an old ulcer may have very little vitality. 
It may even be infiltrated with lime salts to such an extent as to 
lead one to suppose that the tibia is exposed; but the signs of a 
bone ulcer—viz., periosteal swelling, sinus formation, and the loos¬ 
ening and casting off of necrotic bone—will of course be wanting. 
If there is such a calcified base to the ulcer, it should be dissected 
out and the skin applied to the base of the wound, or the skin- 
grafting postponed until new granulations have formed. The de¬ 
tails of skin-grafting are given on page 577. The leg of an un¬ 
healthy or aged person is a most unfavorable site for skin-grafting, 
so one should be guarded in prognosis. Sometimes the grafts will 
not attach themselves, sometimes they atrophy from lack of nutri¬ 
tion while the patient is still in bed, and sometimes they ulcerate 
f i om the same cause or from traumatism after the patient gets 
up. Even after such a graft has firmly attached itself, the pa¬ 
tient should spend a good deal of time in a horizontal position 
until the new skin grows strong. It should also be protected 
against slight traumatisms, such as the rubbing of the clothing 
against it. 




PERFORATING ULCER OF THE FOOT 


529 


Ulcer Exposing Bone—The tibia may be exposed in case of a 
traumatic ulcer (Fig. 283), but even if the periosteum is carried 
away by the injury, tlie underlying bone need not necessarily die. 



Fig. 283.—Traumatic Ulcer of Leg Exposing the Tibia, One Week after In¬ 
jury. The white spot in the center of the ulcer is the bare bone, not dead how¬ 
ever. Patient a man aged twenty-two years. 

It may send out granulations from its interstices, which shall 
form a soil for the growth of epithelium until the ulcer is quite 
healed. 

Perforating Ulcer. —Callosities on the first or second or 
third toe, or on the ball of the foot, often give pain and are pared 
away with a knife or scissors. In this manner infection may occui 
and lead to an abscess. If the pus strips up the callosity from the 









530 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 



deepest layer of epithelium, and then either breaks through the 
superficial skin or is evacuated, it may cure the patient of his 
callosity. Instead of this happy result, one usually finds that 
the callus has been only partly separated from the deeper skin, 
and that beneath it is a small deep ulcer j hence the name per¬ 
forating ulcer (Fig. 
284). Such an ul¬ 
cer, hounded as it 
is by tough, thick, 
slowly growing skin 
and occurring usu¬ 
ally in those past 
middle age, is ex¬ 
tremely difficult to 
heal. I he surround¬ 
ing edge of the skin 
should be pared 
away, or removed 
with a salve con¬ 
taining ten per cent 
of salicvlic acid. 
Every effort should 
be made to keep the 
parts soft and pli¬ 
able at the same 
time that the treat¬ 
ment of the ulcer 

itself is carried out 

Iig. 2S4. Perforating Ulcers of Foot, Duration ill accordance with 
Six Months. Patient a man aged thirty-eight i . _ 

years. the principles given 

in the preceding 

pages. Plastic operations aiming to cure the ulcer by skin-grafts, 
or by flaps, are usually unsuccessful. If neglected, the per¬ 
foration may extend and cause the loss of one or more toes (Figs. 
2S5 and 286). The urine of these patients should alwavs he 

carefully examined, as many of them have either nephritis or 
diabetes. 








Fig. 286. —Dorsal View of Same Foot as Shown in Fig. 285, and also of the 
Right Foot, One of the Toes of which was Lost as a Result of Similar 
Ulceration. 

36 


Pig. 285. —Perforating Ulcers of Toes, Two Years. Patient a man aged fifty 

years. 


531 











532 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


ARTHRITIC AND CHRONIC INFLAMMATIONS 

Suppurative Synovitis. —Suppuration in the knee-joint or 
other joint of the lower extremity may follow a compound fracture 
or a punctured or incised wound, or a carelessly performed aspira¬ 
tion for serous synovitis. It may also develop from the blood in 
acute infectious diseases, or in gonorrheal arthritis. In the last 
named disease the fluid in the joint may be seropurulent or puru¬ 
lent, from a mixture of gonococci and pyogenic organisms; finally, 
suppuration in the bone (osteomyelitis), or in the soft parts (boil 
or abscess), may break into the joint. 

The signs of suppurative synovitis are the same as those of 
serous synovitis (p. 483), plus increased pain and tenderness, and 
edema and redness of the periarthritic soft tissues, so that fluctua¬ 
tion in the joint may be masked by these added signs. 

Treatment. —The course of the disease in mild cases may be 
toward spontaneous recovery; but unless both general and local 
symptoms steadily improve, the surgeon should not rest content 
with the milder forms of treatment suited to serous synovitis, but 
should aspirate to prove the presence of pus, and then drain. Such 
a joint soon suffers permanent injury. The cartilages erode, and 
the bones may necrose before nature gives relief by the establish¬ 
ment of fistulae to the surface. 

In case of wounds which may involve the joint, an incision 
should be at once made, at least to the capsule. If the capsule is 
not visibly injured, or if there is a probability from the character 
of the injury that the joint cavity is not infected, drains should be 
placed so as to reach the capsule, but not enter it. If the joint 
has been visibly opened, or if there is probability of its infection, 
it should be freely incised and irrigated with saline, and drained 
with rubber tissue. A wet dressing should be applied and the limb 
elevated, and kept at rest by a splint. (See also p. 425 for the later 
treatment of an inflamed joint in order to increase its mobility. 

Some of the special forms of inflammation involving the lesser 
joints of the lower extremity, or the larger joints to a lesser de¬ 
gree, require further mention. 

The joints of the foot in diabetic, nephritic, and otherwise 
debilitated individuals often become the seat of a chronic sup¬ 
puration developing from trivial causes. Thus the first meta- 


GONORRHEAL ARTHRITIS 


533 


tarsoplialangeal joint (less often the others) may suppurate as 
a result of infection of a corn or callus on the sole or side of the 
foot. While this lesion is analogous to suppurative arthritis of 
the hand (p. 423), it is far more difficult to get rid of, even with 
the patient in bed, both because of the poorer circulation of blood 
in the foot and because it generally occurs in persons of middle 
age or older, who are not entirely healthy. Diabetes, gout, endar¬ 
teritis, and chronic nephritis should always be borne in mind and 
differential diagnostic tests made. If any one of these diseases is 
found to exist, and acute symptoms do not promptly subside when 
a lateral incision lias been made into the joint, resection of the 
joint or amputation of the toe above the joint or of the foot is 
advisable; for even if incision and drainage give temporary relief, 
a sinus will probably persist, with a slow necrosis of the end of 
the bones making up the joint. 

Rheumatism. —In acute rheumatism the inflammation rarely 
goes on to suppuration, but recovery is favored and pain relieved 
by rest to the affected joints secured by a splint or rest in bed. 
Ouaiacol, twenty drops on cotton covered with rubber tissue, is a 
good local application. The salicylates should be given internally, 
ten grains more or less every four hours. It is well worth remem¬ 
bering that in some cases acute rheumatism is confined to a single 
joint. This proportion is given by some writers as high as twenty 

per cent. 

Gonorrheal Arthritis.— The knee is frequently a seat of 
gonorrheal inflammation, being attacked about as often as the wrist. 
While gonorrheal arthritis is usually monarticular, it occurs m 
more than one joint in perhaps twenty-five per cent of the cases m 
which the joints become involved at all. The affection develops 
rather slowly, but gives in the course of a few days in a striking 
manner the cardinal symptoms of pain, heat, redness, swelling, 
and loss of function. A history of gonorrhea within a few weeks 
past can usually be obtained, and a drop or two of pus can usually 
be expressed from the meatus of the male patient. If the diagnosis 
is still doubtful, fluid may be withdrawn from the joint, for micro¬ 
scopic examination. This should be done with the strictest aseptic 
precautions. Tuberculosis is common in the knee, but develops 
more slowly. Gout and syphilis are more prone to attack the 
smaller joints of the foot, and each has its own history. 


534 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


Treatment. —Wet dressings and a posterior splint, and as 
much rest to the limb in a longitudinal position as the patient 
can afford, should be the principles of treatment. Baking is ex¬ 
cellent to relieve pain and reduce swelling. Later, counter-irritants 
and strapping .(p. 493) are good measures with massage, when 
the acute inflammation has entirely subsided. It may be several 
months before all of the symptoms due to gonorrheal inflammation 
of the knee disappear, but the functions of the joint are seldom 
permanently impaired. The effusion into the joint may be so 
great that aspiration, or even incision and drainage, are advisable 
to preserve the vitality of the tissues. 

Gout.- —This disease produces such well known gastric, ne¬ 
phritic, cutaneous and nervous symptoms that its local lesions are 
not often mistaken for anything else. The treatment is usually 
not surgical, but if the urates accumulate in a position to incom¬ 
mode the patient, they should be removed. Such is not infre¬ 
quently the case with deposits in the feet. There is a wide-spread 
hesitation to perform any surgical operation upon a gouty patient, 
hut a small dissection requiring only local anesthesia produces no 
noticeable shock, and is followed by just as prompt healing as when 
performed upon the non-gouty. If the urates ulcerate through the 
skin, the opening should be enlarged, and the foreign matter re¬ 
moved. If a joint suppurates, it should be drained, or if necessary 
resected. 

It is only in the exceptional case that operative treatment is 
required. Bor the most part the local treatment consists in hot 
applications and rest to the affected joint, while the general treat¬ 
ment includes the use of colchicin, diuretics, laxatives, and ano¬ 
dynes, according to circumstances. 

Syphilis .—The various lesions of syphilis later than the pri¬ 
mary lesion are regularly found in the lower extremity. Of the 
deeper lesions, gumma of the skin and subcutaneous fat may pro¬ 
duce a sluggish ulceration, with indurated margin and possibly 
overhanging edges; while at a later stage of the lesion, when the 
induration has disappeared and the cavity has partially filled with 
granulations, the appearance differs little from that of any healing 
ulcer. 

Syphilitic periostitis of the tibia is common. It does not usu¬ 
ally lead to ulceration, but forms a diffuse swelling which lasts 


TUBERCULOSIS 


535 


a long time, and is especially painful at night, and may leave 
some permanent thickening of the bone. The usual form of 
gumma with ulceration may also occur. 

Another late manifestation of syphilis in the lower extremity 
is the involvement of a joint or joints. Either the periarticular 
tissues may be the seat of the gummata or the hones themselves. 
According to the degree of severity there may he fluid in the 
joint, or general swelling with plastic adhesions, or erosion of 
cartilages, ankylosis, and contraction of the muscles. 

Treatment. —The usual antisyphilitic treatment should be 
employed (p. 61). In addition there should he rest to the affected 
parts, during the acute stage, and massage and passive and active 
motions to restore the use of the joints after the acute symptoms 
have passed over. For this purpose a rocking-chair and teeter 
are very serviceable. Treatment suitable for the ulcers is de¬ 
scribed on page 521. 

Tuberculosis. —In making an early diagnosis of joint tuber¬ 
culosis, one should not be misled by the history of a fall or a 
slight sprain. This injury may be the beginning of the tuberculous 
lesion, or it may simply have served to call the attention of the 
patient to a joint already involved by tuberculosis. The existence 
of swelling in the joint, of slight atrophy of the muscles above and 
below the joint, of tenderness of one of the hones of the joint, and 
of muscular spasm when the joint is moved to the limit in various 
directions, ought to convince the examiner that he is dealing with 
something more serious than a sprain. If he is still in doubt he 
should keep the part at rest and examine it again in a few days. 
If there is only a sprain, the symptoms will have disappeared for 
the most part. If there is tuberculosis, the symptoms will he essen¬ 
tially the same, though the tenderness and swelling usually subside 
somewhat under the influence of rest. There will also be a slight 
afternoon fever. The A-ray may show the affected hone to he 
less dense in places, and perhaps a little larger than normal. 

Treatment. —If the patient is a child, whether the tubercu¬ 
losis is in the hip, knee, or ankle, a suitable brace should he pro¬ 
vided to keep the inflamed joint quiet, and to take from it the 
weight of the body. If the patient is an adult the case is somewhat 
different. He will usually prefer crutches to a brace, and because 
his chance of successfully overcoming the disease is not as great 



536 


INFLAMMATIONS OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


as it is in childhood, the question of operative removal of the 
affected tissues by resection or amputation ought to receive early 
consideration. 

The treatment which has proved so beneficial to many patients 
having pulmonary tuberculosis is equally desirable for those suf¬ 
fering from tuberculosis of the bones and joints. The essentials 
of this treatment are a constant supply of fresh air, a large supply 
of food, especially of fats, and a rapid carrying off of the waste 
products by the free use of cathartics. One or two spoonfuls of the 
juice which can he squeezed from freshly ground raw vegetables 
may be given to the patient immediately after his noonday and 
evening meals, to increase his appetite and his ability to utilize 
large quantities of food. This treatment, recommended by Russell 
for patients with pulmonary tuberculosis, is equally adapted to 
patients who have tuberculosis of the hones and joints. 

Treatment should be continued for a long time, as it takes from 
one to three years for even a child to recover fully from a tuber¬ 
culous lesion. 


CHAPTER XIX 


TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 

TUMORS 

Callus. — A callus is a thickening of the epidermis due to its 
repeated pressure between a bone and some hard surface outside of 
the body. When this repeated pressure first occurs, blisters may 
be formed. If the traumatism is often repeated, the epithelium 
thickens, and a callus results. 

In many instances a callus is a protection to the body, and 
need not be disturbed. In some cases, however, it becomes so hard 
that the underlying sensitive skin is painfully pressed upon. This 
is especially true of calluses upon the sole of the foot. Under 
such circumstances the outer portion of the callus should be re¬ 
moved. 

Before cutting away the outer portion of a callus the skin 
should be thoroughly softened by soaking it in a hot alkaline solu¬ 
tion. Washing soda answers well for this purpose. The outer 
portion of the callus should then be scraped or pared away. The 
process should be repeated on succeeding days until the skin be¬ 
comes sufficiently flexible. Great care should be taken not to cut 
into the living skin, as infection started in this manner often 
burrows beneath the callus, and is extremely difficult to stop (p. 
529). Another method of removing a surplus callus is to apply 
to it an ointment containing salicylic acid, a dram to the ounce; 
or it may be painted with salicylic acid collodion. Two or three 
days later the first layer of thickened skin will have softened so 
that it can be removed from a considerable area. The acid should 
then be reapplied, but ‘care should be taken to confine the subse¬ 
quent applications to the portion of skin which is still abnormally 
thick. Flatfoot or other deformity which causes the excessive 
pressure should be corrected, and suitable shoes should be pro¬ 
vided. 


537 



538 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


Corn. —A corn is a circumscribed thickening of the epider¬ 
mis, usually occurring at a point where the skin is pressed between 
a bony prominence and the shoe. In these respects it resembles a 
callus. It differs from it in possessing a central peg, or core. 
Another point of difference is the possibility that a corn may 
develop between the toes. Such a corn is often kept in a 
macerated condition by the moisture, and is therefore called a 
soft corn. 

The treatment of a corn is similar to that of a callus. After 
the outer portion has been softened and removed, the central peg 
should be dissected out. In some corns there are more than one 
of these conical thickenings. Salicylic acid is the active principle 
of most of the advertised corn cures. The treatment of a soft corn 
is similar, but, owing to the more delicate nature of the skin, 
applications should be milder, or should be left in place for a 
shorter period. Shoes should be changed so that pressure upon 
the affected spot may be avoided; but even when this is accom¬ 
plished, it takes a long time to overcome the tendencv of the 


epithelium to conical thickening. 

Varicose Veins. —Varicose veins come chiefly to notice as 
one of the predisposing causes of ulcer of the leg. They may even 
without ulceration give the patient so much trouble that he seeks 
surgical relief. They are most commonly found in women who 
have borne many children, and who during their pregnancies have 
been obliged to be on their feet all day long, in spite of warning 
pains in the thighs and legs; but any person who is on his feet a 
great deal may have varicose veins. 

The veins that become distended may be few or many. They 
may also be large or small. The internal saphenous vein and 
some of its branches are most often affected. The trouble may 
extend from the toes to the groin, or it may be limited to some 
portion of the extremity. The skin often becomes erythematous 
and pigmented in places, and may easily break down and ulcerate. 

The chief symptom of varicose veins is an aching pain and 
heaviness in the affected leg. Edema, especially toward night, is 
not uncommon. If the veins become inflamed, as they often do, the 
pain becomes acute, and there is a localized tender, red, edematous 
swelling, in the center of which the inflamed vein can often be 
felt as a thickened, hard cord. (See Phlebitis, p. 515.) 


VARICOSE VEINS 


539 


Treatment.— The best palliative treatment for varicose veins 
is an elastic bandage, to be applied in the morning before the 
patient leaves his bed, and to be taken off at night (p. 527). If 
this is too much trouble, an elastic stocking may be worn. A 
simple operative treatment is the following: 

A few drops of carbolic acid injected into a dilated vein will 
cause an obliterating blood clot to form. Small, firm pads should 
be strapped on the vein above and below the point of injection to 
limit the blood flow; and a similar pad should be strapped over 
the point of injection to favor obliteration of the lumen. These 
pads are removed in a week. There is little tendency for dilatation 
to recur. 

If more radical treatment is called for, the affected vein may 
be ligated in a number of places. This operation is easily car¬ 
ried out under a local anesthetic, each incision half an inch to 
an inch in length, being made directly down upon an enlarged 
venous trunk, parallel to its lumen. The vein being exposed is 
separated from its bed, ligated in two places, and divided between 
the ligatures. Each wound in the skin should be closed with silk 
sutures. 

A more radical operation is the removal of an entire dilated 
vein, or of its most prominent portions. When the vein is ex¬ 
posed by a skin incision, it can be dissected out of its bed partly 
by blunt instruments and partly by scissors. This operation may 
be carried out by using a local anesthetic, or a general anes¬ 
thetic may be preferred. A light ligature above the operative 
field keeps the veins full, and the dissection should be made from 
below upward. The surgeon should be on his guard against trou¬ 
blesome bleeding which can easily follow the division of a deep 
branch, whose mouth is sometimes found with difficulty. On 
account of this risk of loss of blood, as well as because of the more 
extensive incisions, this operation should be followed by a rest 
in bed of a few days, which the simple ligation and division of the 
veins does not require. After either operation a dry dressing 
should be applied and kept in place until the stitches are removed 
on the fifth day. 

The choice of treatment for dilated veins of the leg will de¬ 
pend not only on the size and situation of the veins, but still more 
on their number. If veins on all sides of the limb are much en- 


540 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


larged, it is a hopeless task to attempt their cure by removal, 
especially as the deeper branches will in such instances be found 
to be dilated also. If, on the other hand, a single large trunk with 
a few branches is involved, a permanent cure may be effected, 
even if the dissection has to extend from the ankle nearly to the 
saphenous opening. 

In this last class of cases the subcutaneous method of dissec¬ 
tion recommended by Mayo is of service. lie exposes the vein 
high up, divides it. and passes over the lower portion an instru¬ 
ment which resembles a dull wire curette. This can be wormed 
along beneath the skin, dissecting out the vein until it breaks, 
usually three or four inches from the first exposure. The beak 
of the instrument is then pushed against the skin and cut down 
upon. The lower end of the vein is seized, the instrument is 
withdrawn and passed over the vein in the new opening, another 
worming downward takes place until the vein again breaks, etc. 
Side branches as they are torn off may be followed or simply li¬ 
gated according to their size. 

Aneurism. —The popliteal artery is the one artery of the 
lower extremity especially liable to undergo dilatation. The diag¬ 
nosis is easy even in an early stage if one tests for expansile pulsa¬ 
tion. The only other cystic swelling in this vicinity is distention 
of the bursa under the inner head of the gastrocnemius and tendon 
of the semimembranosus muscles. The distended bursa is not situ¬ 
ated in the same place as the popliteal artery and it does not 
pulsate (p. 481). 

The cure of aneurism by pressure and by operation is fully 
discussed in text-books on major surgery. Since the improvement 
of operation for this lesion, other methods of cure are seldom em¬ 
ployed; and yet it is worth remembering that many cases of 
popliteal aneurism have been cured by digital pressure continued 
by frequent changes of assistants one or two days, until the blood 
in the sac coagulates. 

Ganglion. —This may occur in the foot as well as in the 
hand (but it is rare). It may be treated by aspiration and injec¬ 
tion or by excision. (For diagnosis and treatment see p. 445.) 

Sebaceous Cyst. —This tumor, so common in the upper por¬ 
tion of the body, is seldom found below the hips. (For diagnosis 
and treatment see p. G7.) 


OSTEOMA 


541 


Lipoma and Fi- 
brolipoma. — These 
tumors are occasional¬ 
ly found on the thighs. 
(For their diagnosis 
and treatment see p. 
185.) 

Fibroma. —A tu¬ 
mor of the appearance 
of a pure fibroma 
should always he looked 
on with suspicion, and 
subjected to a careful 
microscopic examina¬ 
tion. It will often turn 
out to be a sarcoma, 
either spindle-celled or 
made up of small 
round cells. 

Osteoma. — Any 
bone may be the seat 
of an osteoma. In the 


Fig. 287.—Osteoma of the Tibia of Three 
Years’ Duration in a Boy aged Four¬ 
teen Years. 

lower extremity these tumors are 
chiefly found growing from the 
femur or tibia (Fig. 287) or 
from the dorsal surface of the 
last phalanx of the great toe (Fig. 
288). The nail is lifted from its 
bed by the tumor, which grows 
almost directly upward. 

Treatment. — If an osteoma 
is troublesome, it should be re¬ 
moved together with its attach¬ 
ment to the bone. A pathological 
examination should always be 
made to rule out the possibility of 



Fig. 288.—Osteoma of the Great 
Toe Growing under the Nail 
and Pushing the Nail Before 
It. Duration five months; patient 
a woman aged thirty-four years. 










542 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


osteosarcoma. The osteoma of the tibia shown in the illustra¬ 
tion gave no trouble. Such a tumor should he radiographed 
and then merely he kept under observation to rule out the pos¬ 
sibility of malignancy. The osteoma under the nail prevented 
the comfortable use of an ordinary shoe, and was therefore 
removed. 

Sarcoma. —All kinds of sarcomata are found in the lower ex¬ 
tremity, and they may arise in any tissue plane from the skin 
to the marrow of the bones. The forms that are especially likely 
to lead to a mistake in diagnosis are sarcoma of the knee or of 
the femur near the knee, simulating tuberculosis; sarcoma of the 
shaft of a bone, especially of the tibia, simulating syphilis; sar¬ 
coma of the skin or subcutaneous tissue, simulating fibroma, and 



Fig. 289. —Sarcoma of Great Toe from Injury Nine Months Previous. Patient 

a man aged fifty-one years. 


sarcoma of the toes, simulating senile or diabetic gangrene. An 
instance of the last named type is shown in Figure 289. It de¬ 
veloped soon after a traumatism, as sarcoma often does.. 

Treatment. —As soon as the diagnosis is made the tumor 
should be removed, and with it enough of the healthy tissue to 
make recurrence unlikely. This usually means an amputation. 
The only sarcomata therefore whose treatment lies within* the 






CARCINOMA 


543 


field of minor surgery are those which arise in the skin or close 
to it. The removal of such tumors has-been described on page 
462. The deeper sarcomata of the lower extremity afford some 
of the hardest problems which the surgeon has to solve. 

Carcinoma. —A carcinoma of the lower extremity almost 
always starts in an ulcer. Although this is not a common out¬ 


come of an ulcer of the leg, 

o/ 

it is worth bearing in mind. 
Fortunately such a tumor in 
its early months does not ex¬ 
tend far below the surface nor 
form metastases, and it can 
therefore be easily removed, 
and will not be likely to 
recur. 

The hard growing edges 
and sloughy base of such an 
ulcer give it a characteristic 
appearance in many cases 
(Fig. 290). In other cases 
the appearance is less charac¬ 
teristic, and it may be neces¬ 
sary to remove a section for 
microscopic examination be¬ 
fore an absolute diagnosis can 
be made. 



Fig. 290. —Carcinoma Developing in 
an Old Ulcer of the Leg of a Fe¬ 
male Patient. 


Treatment. —If an ulcer or any portion of it is found to be 
carcinomatous in character, it should be at once removed, the cut 
being well away from suspicious tissue. In most cases it will 
be found advisable to cover the wound with skin-grafts, either 
at the time or after granulations have formed (p. 577). Such an 
operation, unless the area is very small, can best be carried out 
with a general anesthetic, and requires a few days’ rest in bed. 


ACQUIRED DEFORMITIES 

There are several deformities acquired from ill-shaped shoes 
which are amenable to ambulant treatment. These deformities 
may be of the nails (twisted nail, ingrown nail), or of the toes 







544 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 

• 

(hallux valgus, hammer-toe), or of the foot (flatfoot, weak foot). 
In all these deformities proper shoes should he insisted on. But 
a change from had to good shoes will not repair the mischief done 
except to a slight degree and often enough the patient has made 
such a change long before consulting the surgeon. 

Twisted Nails. —T wisted nails areffiound usually in old per¬ 
sons, both men and women, and are due to long continued pressure 
of pointed or short shoes. By such pressure on the nails the ma¬ 
trices have been twisted, and the nails grow out in a curve toward 
the outer margin of the foot. This tendency can he observed in 

many persons, but it is espe¬ 
cially, prominent in the aged, 
whose nails often become so 
thick that they are cut with 
difficulty (Fig. 291). Such 
nails are sometimes allowed 
to grow very long before med¬ 
ical assistance is sought for. 
They can be clipped short 
with wire nippers or bone 
shears, without an anesthetic, 
or cocain may be inserted 
around the base of the nail, 
the skin loosened and pushed 
back, and the nail twisted 
over and removed. In the 
latter case a dressing will be 
required for a few days to 
protect the toe until the slight 
tenderness has disappeared. 
The new nail as it grows out will be like the old, but the patient will 
have relief for a year or more. (For Vertical Nails, see p. 562.) 

Ingrown Nail. —This is a condition in which the edge of 
the nail, usually of the great toe, by its too close contact with the 
flesh beneath causes irritation, ulceration, or suppuration. There 
has been much discussion as to whether the nail or the flesh is 
the more at fault. This discussion is without profit. It is much 
better to study the normal conditions, and see what can be done 
to restore them. Figure 292, A and B, shows the normal toe- 





INGROWN NAIL 


545 


nail in longitudinal and transverse section. The drawings are 
from the toe of a young male adult. It is important to note the 
relations of the matrix of the nail to the first phalanx and to the 



Fig. 292. Sections of the Great Toe to Illustrate the Pathology of In- 
grown Nail on which Successful Operation is Based. The nail is shown 
dark, the matrix light. Note that the matrix extends almost to the joint. 
A y longitudinal section \ B, transverse section at point in A marked by the arrow. 
The dotted lines mark out the portion of the nail and matrix which should be 
removed. 


joint; since the hone and joint are landmarks in the performance 
of the operation for the cure of ingrown nail. 

If the nail is allowed to grow out to the end of a normal toe, 
the ordinary pressure of the shoe brings the edge of the nail 
against the underlying skin at the end of the toe where the skin 
is tough, so that no damage results. If an ill-fitting shoe con¬ 
stantly rubs the toe, or if some one steps on it, the trauma may 
break the underlying skin. The edge of the nail will then be 
in constant contact with the sore, and will act like a foreign 
body, and prevent the ulcer from healing. 

This is especially true if the corners of the nail have been cut 
away, so that the pressure of the nail’s edge comes on the more 
delicate skin by the side of the nail, rather than on the tougher 
skin at the end of the toe. The resulting inflammation, ulcera¬ 
tion, and granulation may go on until the toe presents the appear¬ 
ance showm in Figure 293. 

Such a toe is very painful, and the pain is only partly relieved 
by cutting away the upper of the shoe, etc. As there is an easy 
exit for the discharge, infection rarely extends upward into the 









546 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 



foot and leg. On the other hand, the conditions for repair are not 
good, so that a patient may go hobbling about for months with a 
small ulcer under the nail’s edge, marked by an exuberant growth 
of granulations and a slight discharge. 

Treatment. —There are three ways to cure the existing ulcer 
of an ingrown nail: ( a ) One is to interpose some protecting ma- 


Fig. 293. —Ingrown Nails of both Great Toes, Duration One Year. Patient 

a boy aged fifteen years. 

terial between the edge of the nail and the ulcer; (5) another is 
to remove the edge of the nail from the ulcer; (c) and the third 
is to remove the flesh from the edge of the nail. 

In mild cases the ulcer due to an ingrown nail may he cured 
by depressing the flesh along its edge and pushing a small wisp 
of absorbent cotton under it. This should be wet with some 
astringent solution, for example, silver nitrate, 1:50. The upper 
of the shoe should he cut from the sole far enough to relieve the 
great toe from pressure. The dressing should be changed every 
day or two. Cotton should be kept under the edge of the nail 
until the corner of the latter has grown out to the end of the toe. 
Otherwise the ulcer is likely to reform. 

The nail can be pushed upward away from the ulcer by means 
of a little silver hook. A thin strip of spring silver is so bent 








INGROWN NAIL 


547 


that it will hook under the edge of the nail, and then half encir¬ 
cle the toe, on its plantar surface. As the patient steps on the toe 
the buried edge of the nail is lifted upward. The hook is kept in 
place by adhesive plaster or a bandage. This method, like that 
of cotton and astringents, finds its best use in mild cases occur¬ 
ring in people of some intelligence. 

The edge of the nail may be pared away, and so separated 
from the ulcer. This is the treatment of many patients as 
well as chiropodists. It often gives temporary relief if the 
ulcer does not extend too near 
the matrix, but it can cure 
only mild cases of ingrown 
nail, for as the nail grows 
out its corner digs again 
into the flesh. For the same 
reason, “ tearing out by the 
roots ” the whole or a part of 
the nail is doomed to failure. 

The matrix cannot be torn out, 
and will grow another nail at 
least as distorted as its prede¬ 
cessor. 





A 



Fig. 294.— Operation for Ingrown Nail. A, The line of incision; B, the skin flaps 
reflected; C, the section of nail and corresponding matrix removed. 


A satisfactory radical operation must remove, with the edge 
of the nail, that portion of the matrix from which it grows. 

37 















548 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


The details of this operation are as follows: Cleanse the toe as 
thoroughly as possible with soap and water and an antiseptic 
solution; shut olf the blood-supply of the toe by a bandage tied 
about its narrowest part. Inject a local anesthetic along the edge 
of the nail and beneath it as far back as the base of the second 
phalanx. Cut through the nail and overlying skin in a line paral¬ 
lel to the axis of the toe (Fig. 294, A). This cut should sepa¬ 
rate from the nail a strip about one-fourth of an inch wide, and 
should extend clear through the matrix of the nail—a dense white 
layer easily differentiated from the subcutaneous fat (Fig. 292, A , 
p. 545). The overlying skin at this side should be dissected free 
from this separated marginal strip of nail and from its matrix 
(Fig. 294, B). 

This strip of nail and matrix should be dissected out by cuts 
made above and below it, and meeting well beyond it under the 

skin at the side of the toe. 
The surgeon should remem¬ 
ber that the nail grows 
from the thick layer of epi¬ 
thelial cells placed both 
above and below the plane 
of the nail, the former ex¬ 
tending nearly to the re¬ 
flection of skin, and the 
latter extending to the 
white semilunar line. The 
skin flaps are retracted and 
the wound is inspected for 
any possible bit of matrix 
which may have been left 
(Fig. 294, C). It is then 
well wiped out with an 
antiseptic solution, such 
as a solution of bichlorid, 
1: 2,000, and closed by the 
pressure of a wet dressing 
wrapped around the toe; 
ligation of blood-vessels is rarely necessary, especially if the dress¬ 
ing is partly applied before the constricting bandage around the toe 



Fig. 295. —Operation for Ingrown Nail, 
Showing the Toe a Few Days after 
Operation. Same subject as shown in 
Fig. 293. 








INGROWN NAIL 


549 



is removed. Too great pressure must not be applied to the lateral 
flap, however, lest sloughing or infection follow. The shape of the 
wound facilitates drainage if a wet dressing is put on and fre¬ 
quently moistened. The dressing should he changed daily for 
four days; then if all 
is well, a dry dressing 
may he substituted and 
changed again every 
three or four days. If 
the wound heals as it 
should, it will he quite 
closed in ten days (Figs. 

295 and 296). The 
proximal half usually 
closes by “ first inten¬ 
tion.” Sutures may be 
inserted, hut are not 
necessary. 

The disfigurement 
after this operation is 
slight, and the function¬ 
al result is perfect. 

In performing the 
above described opera¬ 
tion, one should hear in 
mind that every hit of the nail has its corresponding portion 
of the matrix from which it springs and that growth of the nail, 
except in cases of distortion, is parallel to the long axis of 
the toe. One should not, therefore, remove a broader portion 
of the matrix than will correspond to the buried portion of the 
nail. When this rule is followed, the visible portion of the nail 
will continue to he formed and the normal appearance of the toe 
will be preserved. 

If a portion of the matrix is left in the operative field, it may 
grow up by the side of the nail in harmless stubs of nail, or, if 
larger, it may grow a long spike of nail which pierces the skin at 
the side of the toe and renders a second operation necessary, or 
it may be unable to pierce the skin and will then curl up, forming 
a subcutaneous mass of half hardened epithelial debris. 


Fig. 296. —Operation for Ingrown Nail, Show¬ 
ing Toe Ten Days after Operation. The 
length and position of the skin incision are 
plainly shown by the recent scar. 




550 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 

The operation above described lias been developed in the 
bands of the author from several cruder ones, based on the same 
principle, of removing the matrix of the offending portion of the 
nail. Some of them were less certain in accomplishment, and 
some more painful in execution, and some more mutilating. Some 
operators, in addition to the removal of the matrix of the in¬ 
volved part of the nail, tear out the whole formed nail. This has 
no advantage, and renders the toe more or less sensitive for some 
weeks. 

The third method of separating the edge of an ingrown nail, 
and the ulcer it causes, is by removal of the ulcer. This is ac¬ 
complished by cutting away the skin and subcutaneous tissue of 
the side of the toe. As there is then nothing for the nail’s edge 

to press against, the 
soreness quickly disap¬ 
pears. The wound left 
to granulate is from 
half an inch to an inch 
in diameter; so that 
healing takes a month 
to six weeks. The ul¬ 
timate result is good, 
but the shape of the 
toe is somewhat altered 
in appearance. This 
operation bears the 
name of Cotting. 

Hallux Valgus. 
—Hallux valgus is a 
gradually formed ab¬ 
normal abduction or 
partial dislocation out¬ 
ward of the great toe, 
due to wearing short or 
pointed or hisrh-heeled 
shoes. It is often com¬ 
bined with an inflam¬ 
mation of the metatarsophalangeal bursa, often called a bunion 
(p. 482), and with hypertrophy of the head of the first metatarsal 



Fig. 297. —Hallux Valgus, with Hypertrophy 
of the Head of the First Metatarsal, and 
Displacement of the First Toe Outward. 
Note the overriding of the other toes. The de¬ 
formity was of many years’ duration; the pa¬ 
tient a woman aged seventy-two years. 









HALLUX VALGUS 


551 


(I\ig. 297). As the great toe is swung further toward the outer 
side it may come to lie either above or less often below the second 
toe. The pull upon the 
capsule of its joint and | 
the hypertrophy of the 
head of the metatarsal, 
which takes place al¬ 
most entirely on its 
inner side, so alter the 
plane of the joint that 
in extreme cases it 
comes to he as oblique 
as the line drawn from 
the base of the first 
phalanx to the base of 
the fifth metatarsal. 

The symptoms of 
hallux valgus vary 
greatly even in the 
cases uncomplicated by 
bursitis. In the sim¬ 
plest cases there may 
only be a little dull 
pain, due to the more 
or less constant pull on 
the inner side of the 
capsule or due to the 

pressure of the shoe against the exposed and enlarged head of 
the metatarsal. In other cases the pain may he so great as to 
make walking very difficult. If there is simple or suppurative 
bursitis, there will he corresponding signs of inflammation of the 
soft parts with great pain and tenderness, somewhat modified by 
the imperfect drainage which often takes place through a small 
sinus (Fig. 298). 

Treatment. —Non-operative treatment of hallux valgus is 
palliative, and in the early stages, curative. Ill-fitting shoes should 
be discarded, and broad-toed shoes selected which fit snugly 
around the instep and leave plenty of room for the toes. Most 
people consider such shoes ugly, so that they should not be un- 



Fig. 298.—Hallux Valgus, with Hypertrophy 
of the Head of the Metatarsal and Suppu¬ 
rative Bursitis and Synovitis. A small rub¬ 
ber drain is in the sinus. Patient a man aged 
thirty-eight years. 








552 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


necessarily broad. The introduction of a toe-post to separate the 
first toe from the others, should not be advised; for in cases in 
which the deformity is marked, operation is clearly indicated. 
High heels, by flexing the toes, tend to increase any existing lat¬ 
eral deflection whenever the patient bears weight on the foot. 

The patient should practise several times a day voluntary con¬ 
traction of the adductor muscles of the great toe. At first this 
may be impossible, but repeated effort will soon restore the lost 
power over these muscles. This practise will tend to correct the 
existing deformity and also to develop the fibrous protection on 
the inner side of the joint. Bathing with cold water, rubbing 
with alcohol, and other measures of a similar character are serv¬ 
iceable. Counter-irritants, such as guaiacol or iodine, may lessen 
the pain. 

Treatment by Operation .—Hallux valgus in its severer forms 
is amenable to operative treatment. A number of methods have 
been suggested, of which the one described is probably the simplest 
and best. This conclusion seems warranted both on theoretical 
grounds and because of the excellent results which follow it. It 
is best performed under general anesthesia. An incision slightly 
concave upward is made along the side of the joint at about the 
margin of the thick plantar skin. An incision so placed will give 
a scar too low to be pressed against the upper of the shoe and too 
high to be pressed against the sole of the shoe. The incision 
should be about two inches in length. Skin flaps—especially the 
upper one—are dissected free and retracted. The bursa, if in¬ 
flamed, should be dissected out and removed entirely. The capsule 
of the joint is opened by a longitudinal incision. An estimate 
is then made of the amount of the head of the metacarpal which 
it will be necessary to remove in order to correct the plane of the 
joint and to allow the toe to lie in a correct position without force. 
The capsule should then be reflected from such a portion of the 
metatarsal and the partial resection of the head of the bone car¬ 
ried out. This may be done with a bone forceps or with a small 
chisel. In either case splintering of the bone is to be avoided 
by having the tools sharp and by cutting only a little of the bone 
at a time. The piece of bone resected should be wedge-shaped, 
the base of the wedge being directed inward, but the resection 
should extend clear to the outer side of the metatarsal in order 



HALLUX VALGUS 


553 


to avoid tension on the external portion of the capsule when the 
toe is brought into a correct position. Superfluous knobs of bone 
on its inner aspect should now be chiseled away, and the cut sur¬ 
face of the metatarsal, which must now form the joint with the 
first phalanx should be rounded to conform to the normal bone. 
The phalanx is not hypertrophied and should not be cut into. 
This will insure a movable joint except in suppurative cases in 
which the cartilage of the phalanx has sloughed. 

The cavity of the joint should be irrigated with saline solu¬ 
tion and wiped clean. If sufficient bone has been resected, the 
position of the toe can be corrected with very little force. An 
excess of capsule from the inner side should be removed by cut¬ 
ting out of it a transverse ellipse and suturing the cut edges. In 
a suppurative case the 
joint should be drained 
by a wick of gutta-per¬ 
cha tissue. The skin 
incision should be part¬ 
ly or wholly sutured 
and a small dressing 
applied, while the toe 
is held in an overcor¬ 
rected position by a 
suitably padded lateral 
splint. 

This splint should 
under no circumstances 
touch the region of the 
joint. It should be mod¬ 
erately padded where it 
comes in contact with 
the heel, and very 
thickly padded opposite 
the tarsus. It should 

. . „ , . i j Fig. 299. —Lateral Splint for Holding the Toe 

then be firmly bandaged After Operation for Hallux Valgus. 

to the foot. The toe 

can then be approximated to the splint more or less according to 
circumstances. In this manner the wounded or inflamed aiea 
will not be pressed upon at all (Fig. 299). 








554 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


The wound should be entirely healed in from ten to twenty 
days, and a movable joint should be obtained. In favorable cases 
the patient can go about on crutches from the start. 

While such a result may be anticipated in clean cases, and 
even in those in which the infection is mild, there are other cases 
in which the suppuration of the joint has already caused the erosion 
of the cartilages and possible necrosis of some of the bone. Under 
such circumstances free drainage must he maintained for a con¬ 
siderable time. There will usually be a sinus, and possibly an 
ulcer, to the inner side of the joint which will determine the site 
of the lateral incision. Through this the joint cavity should be 
widely opened, and so much of the head of the metatarsal bone 
should be removed as may be necessary to correct the deformity. 
This gives the surgeon a good view of the interior of the joint and 
of the opening into an abscess cavity, if one has already formed, 
as is frequently the case, between the bases of the first and second 
phalanges. Such an abscess will require additional drainage on 
the dorsum of the foot, or between the first and second toes. The 
foot should be put up in a wet dressing. A week later, when the 
acute symptoms will have subsided somewhat, it will be time 
enough to apply the lateral splint. 

Hallux Rigidus. —As the name implies, this is an affection 
of the great toe, marked by stiffness of the metatarsophalangeal 
joint. The toe may lie straight ahead or be slightly flexed. The 
affection is often seen in early adult life. It is often associated 
with flatfoot. In the later stages, the joint becomes distinctly 
thickened, as it does in hallux valgus. 

If hallux rigidus is an accompaniment of flatfoot, the symp¬ 
toms may disappear with the cure of the flatfoot. If this is not 
the case, the pain in walking may be greatly relieved by stiffening 
the sole of the shoe with leather or a steel plate, so that the shoe 
does not bend opposite the affected joint. If the symptoms are 
extreme, excision of the joint or amputation of the toe may be 
necessary. 

Hammer-toe. —Ilammer-toe is a deformity resulting from 
the wearing of short shoes. Usually only one toe is affected, either 
the second or the third. Often the deformity exists in each foot. 
It is more often found in slim persons with long toes. 

The toe is sharply flexed at the first phalangeal joint, while 


HAMMER-TOE 


555 


the third phalanx may or may not be overextended. There is 
usually a painful corn over the first phalangeal joint. The liga¬ 
ments and tendons will often be found too short to permit the toe 
to be fully extended. 

A liammer-toe may be cured by an incision across the flexor 
side of the first phalangeal joint. This cut should divide skin, 



Fig. 300.—Interwoven Adhesive Strips for Correcting the Deformity of 

Hammer-toe After Operation. 

flexor tendons, and the capsule of the joint, so that the toe may 
be fully straightened and easily kept straight. It is sometimes 
of advantage to divide the extensor tendon in the middle of the 
proximal phalanx. The incision on the flexor side of the toe may 
be partly or wholly closed by sutures inserted from side to side, 
thus changing the transverse incision into a longitudinal one. 

This little operation is nearly bloodless, and is easily per¬ 
formed with a local anesthetic on even a sensitive individual. A 





556 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


light dry dressing should be applied to the toe operated on, and 
two strips of adhesive plaster should be woven through the affected 
toe and its fellows on either side in such manner as to hold down 
the first phalangeal joint and to hold up the end of the toe 
(Fig. 300). 

This interweaving of adhesive plaster is not uncomfortable and 
should hold the toe perfectly in a correct position. Tt should be 
kept up for weeks if there is any tendency toward the recurrence 
of the deformity. 

The operation above described is suited to a toe with flexible 
joints and plenty of skin. In long standing cases the skin and 
fascia on the under surface are insufficient to cover the toe in 
its extended position. In such cases it is better to resect the head 
of the first phalanx through a linear lateral incision. After the 
bone has been resected the flexor tendons and the deep fascia can 
be divided transversely through the incision already made. The 
toe will then lie in an extended position without the use of force, 
and has only to be kept there during the healing of the wound. 
The wound should be sutured without drainage. 

If a hammer-toe is thick and painful, and if the pressure 
upon the end of the toe has produced marked deformity of the 
nail, amputation of the terminal phalanx or the last two phalanges 
may be indicated. This is especially the case if the patient is in 
middle life or beyond. The plantar skin should be preserved in 
order to make a thick and painless flap. 

Flatfoot. —In flatfoot, two abnormal conditions are found, 
combined or alone—a weakness and sinking of the longitudinal 
arch of the foot and a rigidity of the metatarsotarsal and tarsal 
joints. These facts can be determined by inspection and manipu¬ 
lation of the feet, by observing the effect of standing with and 
without resting the weight of the body on the suspected foot, by the 
gait, and by noting the imprint of the foot when weight is borne 
upon it. The symptoms are pain in the feet and legs, especially 
after standing, an unnatural, stumpy gait, the patient not rising 
on the balls of the feet, and in some cases swelling of the feet. 

Physical examination is most important. Both feet and legs 
should be bared to the knee, and the patient asked to stand up¬ 
right, putting the weight first on one foot and then on the other. 
If the foot is merely weak, the arch will sink when the weight is 



FLATFOOT 


557 


placed upon it; if it is also rigid, tlie breaking downward of the 
arch will be manifest whether or not the weight is placed upon it. 

The second test is one of manipulation. The patient’s foot 
should be rested upon the examiner’s knee. If the left foot is ex¬ 
amined, the doctor’s left hand should grasp the heel, but the ball 
of his left hand should rest against the center of the arch. With 



Fig. 301. —Testing the Degree of Rigidity in Flatfoot, and Correcting the 

Deformity. 

his right hand he should grasp the heads of the metatarsals, the 
palm of his hand resting against the outer border of the foot. In 
this manner he can test the amount of flexibility of the foot, and 
can also estimate the amount of force required to bring it into a 
normal position. By allowing his two hands to sink between his 
knees, he can supplement the muscular actions of his arms b) that 
of his thighs, thereby greatly relieving himself when attempting 
to correct bimanually any existing deformity (Big. 301). . 

The imprint of the foot, when weight is borne upon it, may 
be obtained by allowing the patient to step first upon a wet towel 
and then upon a hoard or upon blotting paper laid on a hard sur- 
face. A permanent impression is best obtained by inking a glass 
plate with printer’s ink, in the manner employed for small printing 
presses, allowing the patient to step on the glass plate and then 








558 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


to step on paper. The ink is readily washed from the foot by 
soap and water. 

Treatment. —If the flatfoot is due to weakness alone, and is 
of moderate degree, the patient should take exercises morning and 
night, turning the toes directly forward or slightly inward, and 
bearing the weight first on the heels and then on the balls of the 
two feet. This should be taken up gradually until it can be done 
thirty or forty times. The second exercise consists in walking 
around the room barefooted, with the toes turned in and spread 
out as much as possible, and the weight entirely borne on the balls 
of the feet, the heels being kept as high from the floor as possible. 
In the third place, the patient should learn to walk with the toes 
straight ahead. Patients with flat feet habitually turn the toes out¬ 
ward, to avoid lifting the weight of the body on the balls of the feet 
as they step forward. This faulty gait increases their deformity. 

The fourth suggestion for treatment is the elevation of the 
inner half of the sole of the shoe by one or two thicknesses of 
leather. Both the heel and the ball of the shoe should be so treated 
that the plane of the shoe where the foot rests upon it may be 
inclined slightly outward. 

These simple rules, if persistently followed out, will cure many 
cases of flatfoot due to weakness. If rigidity exists, a correct rela¬ 
tion of the bones must be brought about by manipulation before 
the measures above outlined can effect a cure. This manipula¬ 
tion is described above. It should be performed at least twice a 
week by the doctor, until- the patient can voluntarily bring the 
foot into the correct position. 

In the more severe cases of weak foot, and in almost all the 
cases in which rigidity is present, additional treatment is required. 
The manipulation above described must be carried out until the 
rigidity has disappeared; or if the rigidity is too great to yield 
readily to such treatment, or if the pain will not permit of the 
.employment of much force, the patient should be etherized, the 
deformity forcibly corrected, and the foot put up in a heavy plaster 
of Paris bandage, markedly inverted, and with as much of an 
arch given to it as is possible (Pig. 302). The patient should go 
about in such bandages from four to eight weeks. In extreme cases 
it is advisable to apply a second or a third bandage, each time 
some gain in position being accomplished. It is worse than useless 


FLATFOOT 


559 


to fit a brace to the sole of the foot as long as there is rigidity in 
an incorrect position. 

When the foot can be brought into a normal position a cast 
should be made of it in gypsnm (see p. 710), and a steel support 



Fig. 302. —Markedly Rigid Flatfeet Put Up in a Corrected Position in 

Circular Gypsum Splints. 


made from the cast, to be worn inside the patient’s shoe. Such 
a brace will usually crack or rust in six months or a year, and 
it sometimes requires the purchase of specially made shoes; hut 
these are slight inconveniences compared with the disability caused 
by well marked flatfoot. 









560 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 


In some cases the wearing of braces for two or three years will 
so correct the deformity that the patient may go through life with¬ 
out braces and without special shoes. 

While the treatment of flatfoot requires a good deal of time 
and trouble, there are no patients who are more grateful for the 
relief they obtain than these sufferers. 

Transverse Flatfoot; Sinking of the Transverse Arch. 

-—The transverse arch of the foot, formed by the heads of the 
metatarsal bones, may sink, giving rise to pain and disability. 
The pain in some of these cases has received the special name of 
metatarsalgia, or Morton’s disease. It is thought to be due to an 
abnormal pressure of the head of one metatarsal bone against an¬ 
other, or against the sole of the shoe. The heads of these bones 
normally form a shallow arch. It is easy to see that the displace¬ 
ment of one of them may alter their relations. Sometimes this 
displacement is permanent, sometimes it only occurs when the 
patient steps on the foot. 

In some cases a narrow shoe, by preventing the spreading out 
of the bones which compose the arch, is distinctly more comfortable 
than a broader shoe. A patient who has observed this fact may 
resent the idea that the shoe has anything to do with the deformity. 
It is none the less true that the wearing of short shoes and high 
heels, by producing dorsal flexion of the toes, brings an undue 
strain upon the transverse metatarsal arch, and predisposes it to 
give way. 

Treatment. —What has been said of exercise and manipula¬ 
tion in the treatment of flatfoot is of equal value in the treatment 
of weakness of the transverse arch. If one metatarsal bone has 
sunk below its proper plane, a support should be placed beneath 
it. This can be made of sole leather with a beveled edge, and glued 
to the sole of the shoe, or a steel brace can be fitted to a gypsum 
cast made of the sole of the foot. The deformity in the cast 
should be corrected by paring away the projection which represents 
the displaced metatarsal bone. If rigidity coexists with weakness, 
a correct position of the arch should be obtained before a brace is 
fitted to the foot. The brace need not come so far up on the 
instep as the brace made to prevent sinking of ik* longitudinal 
arch. 

If a callus has formed over the displaced metatarsal bone- tEe 


HYPERTROPHY OF TOES 


561 


superfluous epithelium should be softened with salicylic acid and 
carefully peeled away. If such a callus is recklessly torn or cut 
into, it may form a starting-point for a most troublesome infec¬ 
tion and ulceration (see p. 529 ). 

Painful Heel. —Policemen, and others who stand a great deal, 
sometimes complain of severe pain in the plantar surface of the 
heel. This may he due to flatfoot, or simply to overuse of the 
part, or in some cases it may he due to inflammation of a small 
bursa. Lhe patient should he advised to wear rubber heels, and 
if the pain is localized in a small area, the insole of the shoe 
should be cut away at this point, or raised over the rest of the 
heel in order to effect a different distribution of pressure. 

CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES 

Congenital deformities of the foot are analogous to those 
of the hand, but they are less often the subject of treatment be¬ 
cause the toes are not used individually. 

Hypertrophy of Toe. —Marked hypertrophy of one or more 
toes is a condition which calls for surgical treatment, on account 



Fig. 303.—Congenital Hypertrophy of Second Toe. 










562 TUMORS AND DEFORMITIES OF THE LEG AND FOOT 

of the awkwardness due to the great size of the hypertrophied 
member (Fig. 303). Amputation of the superfluous tissue is 
called for, so that the patient may be able to wear ordinary shoes, 
and also to reduce the risk of malignant degeneration, which is 
a not very unusual change in tissue of this character. 

Supernumerary Toe. —Supernumerary toes are about as 
common as supernumerary fingers. Their removal, however, is 
not usually sought for unless they project at an angle. 

Vertical Nails. —Occasionally, the nail of a toe, instead of 
growing parallel to the surface, grows almost or quite straight 

upward, at a right angle to the 
surface. This is most fre¬ 
quently seen in the little toe, 
but may occur in any or all the 
toes. Even when such nails are 
kept closely cut, they are apt to 
become tender from pressure of 
the shoe so that their removal is 
indicated. 

The operation is easily per¬ 
formed under a local anesthetic. 
The skin should be cut on all 
four sides of the nail and the 
dissection carried to the bone 
to make sure that all the matrix is removed. No suture is neces- 

sary. The ultimate result is a transverse scar somewhat |-1- 

shaped. 



Fig. 304 . —Vertical Nails. 







CHAPTER XX 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 
TEXTILE MATERIALS 

Cotton. —During the history of surgery many materials have 
been used to remove the blood from a wound during operation, 
and to absorb discharges from a wound during its repair. Most 
of these have now only a historic interest, since cotton and gauze 
woven from cotton have superseded nearly all other materials for 
both of these purposes. 

Cotton in its raw state has very little absorbent power be¬ 
cause of the oil and gum with which its fibers are covered. When 
the cotton has been bleached by chemicals, and the oil extracted, 
its absorbent power is very great. This fact, together with its 
cheapness and lightness, the toughness of its fiber, and its ready 
sterilization by steam or dry heat make it almost the ideal mate¬ 
rial for surgical dressings. 

Unbleached Cotton.—This is cotton in its natural state, freed 
from dirt, combed, and put up in pound rolls. It is non-absorbent, 
and has a greater elasticity than the absorbent cotton. It is 
therefore preferable as a padding for splints, and to diffuse the 
pressure of a non-elastic bandage; for example, in chronic ulcer 
of the leg (p. 525). These properties also render it superior to 
absorbent cotton for vaginal tampons, but for this purpose it is 
not so good as lamb’s wool. It costs about thirty-five cents a 
pound, as supplied by the dealers in surgical dressings. A con¬ 
siderably cheaper grade is sold in dry-goods stores under the 
name of cotton batting for eighteen cents a pound. This usually 
contains more or less extraneous material. 

Absorbent Cotton.—Absorbent cotton, as supplied by the manu¬ 
facturers of surgical dressings, is freed from dirt, gum, and oil, 
combed and sterilized, and so wrapped in tissue-paper that with 

a little care it remains aseptic until it is all used. It is furnished 

563 



564 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


in packages of various sizes, from a half ounce to one pound, 
costing thirty-five cents a pound in pound packages. On account 
of its lack of elasticity, it is inferior to unbleached cotton as a 
padding for splints, etc. 

Dry cotton is not a suitable material to bring into contact with 
a wound either during operation or afterward. In the former 
case its fibers are likely to stick to the wound, and also to the 
fingers of the operator. In the latter case, if the discharge is 
small, it is likely to evaporate and seal the cotton to the wound 
or to the surrounding skin with a scab which is difficult of re¬ 
moval. If cotton is used for sponging, during an operation, balls 
of suitable size should first be saturated with saline or some anti¬ 
septic solution, and then squeezed dry. In this state the cotton 
will not stick to the wound nor to the fingers, and will soak up 
the blood instantly. Another method is to make cotton balls 
and cover each with a layer of gauze. If these are to be used 
in a moist state, the gauze is unnecessary; if they are to be used 
dry, they are inferior to the usual gauze sponges, and the sav¬ 
ing in expense is insignificant. They are therefore not to be 
recommended. 

When absorbent cotton is used as a dressing for wounds dur¬ 
ing the period of repair it should be separated from the wound 
by one or more layers of gauze. This may be first applied to the 
wound and a layer of cotton placed over it, or a thin pad of cot¬ 
ton may be wrapped in gauze exactly as one wraps a flat package 
with paper. A few stitches keep the gauze in position. Such a 
dressing, known as a combined dressing, is of regular use in most 
hospitals as a covering for wounds from which a free discharge 
is anticipated. A dressing of this sort applied at operation should 
not be too voluminous, for it is capable of absorbing a great 
amount of fluid. The writer knows of one instance in which a 
patient bled to death into such a dressing before the blood soaked 
through the dressing sufficiently to be noticed. 

Cheaper grades of absorbent cotton of varying degrees of ex¬ 
cellence can now be obtained in most dry-goods stores at prices 
ranging from twenty to thirty cents. One should not trust the 
sterility of such material, but should roll it into loose packages, 
covering each with muslin, and sterilizing them thoroughly before 
bringing the cotton into contact with a fresh wound, 


GAUZE 


565 


Substitutes for Cotton. —Oakum, cotton waste, wood wool, etc., 
are preparations made of refuse hemp, or cotton fibers or wood 
which possess a considerable power of absorption, and which are 
suitable for dressing wounds with chronic discharge if rigid econ¬ 
omy is necessary. They cost from ten to twenty cents a pound. 

Lamb’s "Wool. —Lamb’s wool has great elasticity, does not 
become soggy when exposed to moisture, and absorbs readily oily 
substances and glycerids. When cleaned and sterilized it is there¬ 
fore an excellent material for vaginal tampons. It costs about 
two dollars a pound, hut it is so light that an ounce package will 
make ten tampons of ordinary size. 

Gauze. —Bleached absorbent gauze is the most important item 
in surgical dressings. The firmness of the material varies accord¬ 
ing to the number of threads to the inch. The quality should he 
selected according to the purpose for which it is desired. Thus a 
gauze which has 24 X 32 threads to the square inch is suitable 
for sponges or for dressings, hut has not sufficient firmness to 
make a good bandage. On the other hand, a gauze with 40 X 44 
threads to the square inch, used for bandages, is unnecessarily 
expensive when used for sponges or dressings. It is, however, 
an unwise economy to select for sponges and dressings a gauze 
with too large a mesh. Such a gauze absorbs so little that an 
additional quantity is required in every case, so that the total 
expense is very likely increased. 

Gauze suitable for sponges and dressings, having 26 X 32 
threads to the square inch, costs at the present time from four to 
five cents a yard, by the piece of 100 yards. This price is in¬ 
creased to eight or even ten cents a yard when the gauze is pur¬ 
chased in small pieces, previously sterilized and hermetically 

sealed. 

Gauze for bandages, having 40 X 44 threads to the square 
inch, costs from five to seven cents a yard, by the piece of fifty 
yards. 

Gauze Sponges.—A square yard of gauze will make sixteen 
small sponges. If larger ones are desired, the yard may be cut 
into four strips, and each strip cut into three pieces, theieby gi\mg 
twelve sponges to the yard. A more convenient method is to take 
the piece of gauze as it comes folded back and forth in the yard 
lengths, and to cut twelve or fifteen thicknesses info nine inch 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


566 


squares. Half of these squares lying along the natural folds of 
gauze will then he of double thickness, and sponges made from 
them will be twice as large as those made from the single squares. 
This gives eight thick sponges and sixteen thin sponges to every 
two yards of the gauze, an average of twelve per yard, at a total 
cost of five cents a dozen. 

Sponges are made as follows: Let the two yards of gauze be 
cut into sixteen squares. One of the raw edges of a center square 



Fig. 305. Two Yards of Gauze Cut into Nine Inch Squares to Make Twenty- 
four Sponges; Eight Thick and Sixteen Thin Ones. The sponges are shown 
in various stages of preparation. The second vertical row from above downward 
shows the five steps in the making of a sponge from a single thickness of gauze. 
The fourth vertical row shows the four steps in the making of a sponge from a 
double thickness of gauze. 


is folded over for a distance of two inches, the two sides are then 
folded in, the first for a distance of three inches, and the second 
ior a distance of two and one-half inches. This gives a strip of 
gauze seven inches long and three inches wide, with one folded 
end and one raw end. The folded end is folded over for a dis¬ 
tance of two and a half inches. This end is opened, and the rough 













GAUZE 


567 




end is tucked into it for a distance of two inches. This gives a 
sponge measuring two and one half by three inches, composed of 
twelve thicknesses of gauze. The details are shown in the accom¬ 
panying illustration (Fig. 305). 

The nine inch squares which lie along the natural folds of 
the gauze have already one folded edge, hence one begins by fold¬ 
ing in the two sides. This gives a strip nine inches long, three 
inches wide, having one folded end and one rough end. The 
folded end is now folded inward a distance of three inches. This * 
end is opened and the rough end is tucked in for a distance of 
three inches. This gives a sponge measuring three inches square. 

If one wishes to have sponges more nearly uniform in size, 
this can be accomplished by cutting the gauze into strips within 
eight inches of the natural folds. AVhen the four strips are cut 
in the opposite direction there will be eight double pieces, meas¬ 
uring eight by nine inches, and eight single pieces, measuring 
ten by nine inches. When the preliminary two inch fold has 
been made, a single piece will then be the same size as the double 
pieces, and the completed sponge will have the same area, but 
not quite the same thickness as the double sponge. 

When finished these sponges should be wrapped in muslin in 
packages of ten (or, as some prefer, of twelve), marked, and 
sterilized by steam. 

Gauze in Strips.—Pieces of gauze one yard or two yards in 
length should be folded lengthwise three times, thus making a 
strip four and a half inches wide and eight layers thick. This 
strip should be rolled up, wrapped in muslin, marked, and ster¬ 
ilized by steam; or if preferred, yard or half yard pieces of gauze 
may be folded flat, wrapped up in similar packages, and sterilized. 

These pieces of sterilized gauze take the place of sterilized 
towels and sheets to provide a sterile field around the minor oper¬ 
ative wounds. In this way the bulk of the material necessary for 
the operation is considerably reduced. 

Gauze drains are sometimes prepared beforehand, but unless 
medicated gauze is used, this is unnecessary, since a gauze sponge 
can in a moment be unfolded and converted into a drain by fold¬ 
ing it lengthwise upon itself. 

Gauze Bandages.—Bleached gauze is used for bandaging to a 
greater extent than any other material on account of its lightness, 



568 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


cheapness, cleanly appearance, and ease of application. It is made 
in various grades, but should contain not less than 40 X 44 threads 
to the inch. Such gauze costs by the piece about five cents a yard. 

It has the disadvantage that if torn into strips for bandages, the 

% 

edges are ragged, and the finished bandage, no matter how care¬ 
fully applied, does not present a neat appearance. In the manu¬ 
factured gauze bandages which are cut on the thread, or are sliced 
from a tightly wound roll, this disadvantage is eliminated. 

A gauze bandage is more porous than a muslin one, and is 
therefore cooler. It is not nearly so firm as muslin, so that more 
turns are ordinarily employed. The initial saving of expense 
per yard in making gauze bandages is probably lost in the appli¬ 
cation. Gauze has one distinct advantage over muslin in its ease 
of application. It is sufficiently rough to cling to itself, so that 
the turns of bandage do not easily slip out of place. Moreover, 
it is so loosely woven that it tends to fit the part, even though it 
is not applied with exactness. 

Unbleached Muslin. —Muslin, bleached, or more often un¬ 
bleached, is used for slings, for handkerchief or first aid dress¬ 
ings, and for roller bandages. 

The muslin employed for bandages need not he of the best 
quality, since even the cheaper grades are sufficiently firm for 
the purpose. Such a muslin costs about eight cents a yard, by 
the piece. A muslin bandage has certain points of superiority 
over gauze. It is firmer and will maintain its shape for a long 
time if well put on. It is not so easily soiled, and can he washed 
and ironed and used again many times. This is often an item of 
importance in dressing chronic ulcers of the leg, etc., as patients 
with such diseases are often obliged to practise rigid economy. 
Muslin tears readily, with a fairly sharp edge, so that the home¬ 
made bandages present a good appearance. 

Flannel. —The flannel selected for bandages need not he 
finely woven, hut it should be all wool, in order to give the band¬ 
age its maximum of elasticity, which is the special merit of this 
type of bandage. The chief objection to a flannel bandage is its 
expense. It can he repeatedly washed and dried, provided luke¬ 
warm water and mild soaps are used, so that it is especially use¬ 
ful as a bandage of the legs, for chronic ulcer associated with 
edema. Whether red flannel or white flannel is employed is a 


STOCKINETTE 


569 


matter of taste. The former has no superiority to the latter, and 
the dye sometimes comes out and stains the skin. Flannel band¬ 
ages are easily torn,»or they may he cut on the bias, the elas¬ 
ticity being thereby considerably increased. The latter form of 
bandage tends to become narrower with use—a point which 
should he taken into consideration in cutting the bandage. A 
patient should be directed to purchase two yards of flannel, every 
thread of which is wool, cut it on the bias into strips four inches 
wide, lap the ends of these, and sew them together flat, in order 
to avoid unnecessary ridges. This will give him three bandages, 
so that he can wash one while the other two are in use. A simi¬ 
lar plan may he followed in making torn flannel bandages, al¬ 
though if one wants as many as six or eight, he will naturally 
use a piece of flannel as long as the bandage required. Flannel 
suitable to this purpose costs at retail about forty cents per yard, 
and is about twenty-eight inches wide. 

Canton Flannel. —Canton flannel is used chiefly for making 
many tailed bandages and other bandages of the abdomen (iSTo. 33, 
p. 650). It is too thick to make a satisfactory bandage of an 
extremity or the head. It has no elasticity. It tears well, and 
costs about twelve cents a yard at retail. 

Stockinette. —Stockinette is a cotton fabric knitted in cylin¬ 
drical form. It is sometimes employed for bandages on account 
of its elasticity. It can be washed and used repeatedly, but its 
thickness makes it a very clumsy material, and it is as expensive 
as flannel, costing twenty-five cents per bandage of five yards. 

Large cylinders of stockinette are used instead of an under¬ 
shirt to prevent a gypsum or plaster of Paris jacket from coming 
into contact with the skin. One yard or more of the material is 
cut off, and near one end two holes are cut for the arms. Thus 

all seams and buttons are avoided. 

Bandages having considerable elasticity are cut from cloth 
woven like crape from a hard thread made from cotton or other 
vegetable fibers. These bandages are well suited to put in the 
hands of a patient, as they can be wound spirally around a limb, 
and will still exert a fairly even though light pressure. T1 i e\ can 
therefore be applied by those who know nothing of a spiral reverse 
or a figure of eight turn in bandaging. The elasticity of fabrics 
of this sort diminishes rapidly with use. 




570 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


Silk.— Silk in the form of black ribbon makes an excellent 
bandage for tlie head or hand, and is often less conspicuous than 
a white bandage. This is a point which appeals strongly to most 
patients. The expense is not prohibitive in many cases. Suitable 
ribbon two inches wide can be obtained at twenty cents a yard, 
and for such a bandage four or five yards is frequently sufficient. 
Black muslin is similarly employed, but its appearance is far 
inferior to that of silk. 

Rubber. —Rubber is used in two ways to give elasticity to a 
bandage. A long strip of sheet rubber (pure gum) is cut of the 
required width and rolled up into a bandage. If the rubber of 
which the bandage is made is new such a bandage is pretty ex¬ 
pensive, but a two inch bandage, five yards long, costing eighty 
cents, will retain its elasticity for many months. 

Rubber is also employed in the form of longitudinal threads 
to give elasticity to loosely woven cotton fabrics. These rubber 
threads break with use, so that the pressure obtained by such a 
bandage soon becomes unequal, it is very serviceable to reduce 
swelling in acute cases, for example, in synovitis of the knee. A 
two inch bandage, five yards long, costs forty cents. 

1 here is one feature of a sheet rubber bandage which for 
certain purposes is a distinct drawback. It is impervious to 
moisture, and the perspiration is therefore retained under it. It 
is therefore well to remove it every night, if it must be worn 
for a long period of time, so that both bandage and skin can be 
cleansed by soap and water. 

Crinoline. ( rinoline, either plain or cross-bar, is used alone 
or in combination with gypsum to make a rigid bandage. The 
very heaviest type of crinoline should be purchased for this pur¬ 
pose. It costs about nine cents a yard, and is a yard in width. 
It is easily torn into strips. It is important that the individual 
threads of the crinoline should be heavy, as this will give it more 
rigidity. Such a bandage, whether or not it contains gypsum, 
should be loosely rolled, so that the water will penetrate through 
it rapidly, dhe amount of starch which crinoline contains gives 
to the bandage after it has become thoroughly dry a considerable 
rigidity. Unfortunately, it takes from twelve to twenty-four hours 
for it to dry. During this time the part must be kept immobile, or 
else a weak joint will be made in the bandage. It is very light, 



OILED MUSLIN, SILK, AND PAPER 


571 


and is therefore adapted for use upon children, and as a hand- 
age of the head and neck after extensive dissection of cervical 
glands, etc. 

Gutta-percha Tissue. —This material is gutta-percha spread 
into thin sheets, and treated in such a manner that its surface is 
not sticky. It is sold in sheets a yard square, and costs from fifty to 
sixty cents a yard, according to the weight, whether light, medium, 
or heavy. Tor certain purposes this is the best impervious material 
that we have. It is absolutely non-irritating to the skin or to a 
wound, or to a mucous membrane. It never adheres to a wound, 
and for that reason makes an excellent drain when folded upon 
itself to make a narrow strip, or when it is used to cover a slender 
roll of gauze (Fig. 418, p. 760). It is often employed in burns 
and skin-grafts, to keep the wounded surface moist, and to protect 
it from contact with the dressing. Unfortunately, it cannot be 
sterilized by heat, as it shrivels up when placed in water even a 
little above the temperature of the body. It is commonly steril¬ 
ized by immersion in a strong bichlorid solution for some time 
before its employment. Before it is used it should be rinsed with 

saline solution or sterilized water. 

Oiled Muslin, Silk, and Paper. —As now prepared, oiled 

muslin has none of the sticky, disagreeable features formerly at¬ 
tached to both oiled muslin and silk. It is flexible, opalescent, and 
costs about seventy-five cents a square yard. Oiled silk prepared 
in the same manner, but only thirty inches wide, costs a dollar 
a yard. These materials are serviceable to prevent evaporation 
from a poultice or wet dressing, and to prevent saturation of the 
bedclothing or clothing of the patient during the continuance of 
a wet dressing. Cheaper grades of oiled muslin can sometimes 
be obtained in dry-goods stores. Oiled paper makes a fairly good 
substitute for oiled muslin, and costs only three cents a yard by 
the roll of twenty-five yards. It is twenty-four inches wide. 

LIGATURES AND SUTURES 

In no part of surgical technique is sterility of so great impor¬ 
tance as in the preparation of ligatures and sutures. They are 
implanted in wounded tissues, and any germs which they may 
contain are placed in the most favorable conditions for growth, 


572 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


being harbored in a foreign body (the ligature), and supplied with 
abundant nutriment in the form of extravasated blood and dam¬ 
aged tissue cells. Any material for ligatures or sutures, therefore, 
which cannot be sterilized with certainty should be thrown out 
of the surgical armamentarium. A number of surgeons have at 
one time or another decided that catgut fell under this ban, and 
have refused to employ it under any circumstances. It is now 
pretty generally admitted, however, that it can be sterilized by a 
number of methods with sufficient certainty to warrant its general 
employment. 

Sutures and ligatures are primarily divided into those which 
are capable of disintegration within the tissues, and those which 
remain unchanged either permanently or for a very long period 
of time. The names absorbable and non-absorbable are applied 
to these two classes. Ail the non-absorbable materials can be ster¬ 
ilized by boiling in water or in a steam sterilizer. 

ABSORBABLE SUTURES 

Catgut.— Various animal tendons, strips of hide, and nerves 
have been employed as sutures and ligatures, but they have been 
almost entirely supplanted by catgut. It is cheap, it can always 
be obtained in any size, and in strands of sufficient length, and if 
properly prepared, it has great strength. Moreover, it is quickly 
disintegrated in the tissues, the ordinary sizes being wholly taken 
up in the course of a week or two, so that no foreign body remains 
in the wound indefinitely. Its one disadvantage is the fact that 
it cannot be sterilized by steam or boiling water, for in both of 
these it cooks to a jelly in a few minutes. 

Sterilization of Catgut.— It can be boiled in alcohol in a 
water bath or sand bath, but as alcohol boils at 174° F., the tem¬ 
perature is not sufficient to kill all germs. This method is there¬ 
fore unreliable. 

Catgut may be sterilized by dry heat. Boeckmann’s method is 
as follows: The catgut is soaked in ether one week to remove the . 
fat. Single strands are then wound in rings, and each wrapped 
in paraffin paper and sealed in a paper envelope. The envelopes 
are placed in a dry sterilizer and heated to 300° F. for three 
hours on two successive days. 

Catgut may be sterilized by chemicals. Claudius’s method 


CATGUT 


573 


is the simplest. Commercial catgut without any preparation is 
wound in single layers on glass spools and dropped into a jar 
containing one part of iodin and one part of potassium iodid to 
one hundred parts of distilled water. The jar is tightly covered 
and allowed to stand for one week. For use the spool containing 
the catgut is removed and immersed in sterile water, in order 
to free the catgut from the excess of iodin. Spools which have 
been partially used can he resterilized until the catgut becomes 
brittle, which it is apt to do if it remains for more than three 
months in the above mentioned solution. After one week’s im¬ 
mersion in the iodin solution, the spools may be removed and 
kept in alcohol. This is the simplest reliable method for steril¬ 
izing catgut in the office. 

Catgut may be so treated with chemicals that it can be boiled 
in water. This result may be obtained by soaking the catgut in 
a solution of formaldehyde, but during the entire process the cat¬ 
gut must remain tightly stretched upon glass plates or large spools. 
A simpler method is that of Elsberg. The raw gut is freed from 
fat by immersion in ether or chloroform, or a mixture of one part 
chloroform and two parts ether. It is then wound tightly in a 
single layer on large glass spools, having a hole in each flange in 
which the ends of the gut can be tied. The spools are boiled for 
ten minutes in a saturated solution of ammonium sulphate with 
one per cent of carbolic acid. The spools are then removed with 
sterile forceps, rinsed for half a minute in warm sterile water, 
and placed in strong alcohol. Partially used spools can be re¬ 
sterilized, and the solution of ammonium sulphate in which they 
are boiled can be used indefinitely by the addition of water to 
take the place of that which has evaporated. 

Catgut may be sterilized by boiling in some substance which 
has a higher boiling-point than water, and which at the same time 
will not so alter the catgut as to render it weak or brittle. One 
of the best substances for the purpose is cumol, which boils at 
about 330° F. The method is a little too complicated for office 

use. 

Catgut mav be sterilized by immersion in alcohol heated undei 
pressure in order to obtain a high degree of temperature. This 
requires special apparatus, and is not a method suitable foi gen¬ 
eral office use. 


574 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


Catgut sold in sealed glass tubes is usually prepared by one 
of the two methods last mentioned. Catgut prepared in this 
manner costs from ten to twenty-five cents a ligature, the length 
of which varies from two to ten feet, according to the size of the 
tube. Envelopes, each containing one catgut ligature, about two 
feet long, cost from five to ten cents a piece. 

Commercial catgut comes in coils of one hundred feet, cost¬ 
ing in the sizes usually employed from fifty cents to one dollar 
a coil. 

Chromic Catgut.—As stated above, plain catgut disintegrates 
in the tissues within a few days. Under certain circumstances 
this is a disadvantage—for example, in suturing the various fas¬ 
cial planes in order to cure a hernia, it is desirable that the 
sutures shall not give way until the granulation tissue becomes 
firm. For such purposes, catgut is prepared to resist disintegra¬ 
tion by soaking it in potassium bichromate or chromic acid for 
twenty-four or forty-eight hours. A good method for office use is 
that of Elsberg, mentioned above, with the addition of one part of 
chromic acid to one thousand parts of the ammonium sulphate 
solution. 

The longer the catgut remains in the solution of chromic 
acid or bichromate of potash, the harder it becomes, and the longer 
will it resist disintegration in the body. Chromic catgut or 
chromatized catgut is sold as “ ten day catgut,” “ twenty day 
catgut,” etc. These figures are not very reliable estimates, and 
should not be too implicitly depended upon. If the catgut re¬ 
mains too long in the hardening solution, it will become practi¬ 
cally indestructible in the tissues of the body. Buried sutures of 
such material have often been removed months afterward with¬ 
out their showing the slightest change. 

Kangaroo and Other Animal Tendons. —Kangaroo ten¬ 
don was formerly employed a great deal for the deep sutures in 
hernia operations. The tail tendon of the kangaroo naturally 
splits into round cords which make excellent sutures. The fibers 
in the leg tendons have to be pulled apart mechanically, like the 
fibers in the tendons of the domestic animals. This gives a rough 
thread of uncertain strength. Many of the kangaroo tendons sold 
at the present time have very little value. Chromic catgut is 
gradually taking its place. 


HORSEHAIR 


575 


NON-ABSORBABLE SUTURES 

Silk. —Twisted or braided silk is by far the commonest mate¬ 
rial employed for sutures. Some surgeons also employ it for liga¬ 
tures on account of their fear of infection from imperfectly steril¬ 
ized catgut. Black silk is preferable to white for most sutures, as 
the.stitches are more readily seen and removed. Silk possesses the 
very great advantage of being easily boiled in water at the time 
of the operation. Any good black sewing silk answers the pur¬ 
pose satisfactorily, although many surgeons prefer to buy specially 
prepared and sterilized silk sutures in sealed glass tubes, costing 
from fifteen to twentv-five cents each. 

c/ 

Bor tying large pedicles, floss silk is often employed. This 
is a loosely twisted, very flexible, and strong thread, and answers 
the purpose remarkably well. The practise of mass ligation, 
however, is falling into disuse, as it is now generally recog¬ 
nized that the blood-vessels should be ligated separately, and 
the wounds in the other tissues should be closed by suture with 
finer thread. 

Silkworm Gut. —This material, which is familiar to every 
fisherman, is obtained from the silkworm just before he spins 
his cocoon. It is at the time in a viscid state, and is pulled out 
into a long string and allowed to dry. This gives a hard, elastic 
smooth thread, almost like wire. These threads can be obtained 
in bundles of one hundred of dealers in fishing tackle. Such 
bundles cost from forty cents upward, according to the size and 
length of the individual threads. They can be sterilized by boil¬ 
ing in water or by steam; or they can be obtained in sealed glass 
tubes, costing from fifteen to twenty-five cents each. Silkworm 
gut is even less irritating in the tissues than silk, and is an excel¬ 
lent material to employ when deep sutures are required. 

Horsehair. —Black or brown hairs from the tail of a horse 
make excellent sutures for skin wounds. They should be washed 
with soap and water, and then with alcohol. When needed they 
are easily sterilized in boiling water or in steam. They aie not 
as strong as silk, but they are able to resist all the tension which 
any suture ought to have. They can also be obtained ready ster¬ 
ilized, six in a tube, at twenty cents; or dry in bottles or en¬ 
velopes at a considerably cheaper rate. 


576 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


Cotton and Linen Thread. —Although silk is generally 

used in preference to other manufactured threads, this is largely 
a matter of custom. Cotton or linen thread is easily sterilized 
by boiling, does not irritate the skin, and forms a perfectly satis¬ 
factory suturing material. No one need hesitate to use either in 
an emergency, nor, for that matter, in his regular practise. If a 
colored thread is used, it should have a fast dye, or else it should 
be boiled long enough to extract so much of the dye as is easily 
soluble. 

Celluloid Thread.—Thread dipped in celluloid is often em¬ 
ployed in operations upon the stomach and intestine on account 
of its impervious character. It is prepared in the following man¬ 
ner : A gray linen thread is boiled in one per cent solution of car¬ 
bonate of sodium, wrapped in sterile gauze, dried in hot air, and 
then dipped in a solution of celluloid which is heated in a hot 
air sterilizer. It is dried and then placed in a sterile receptacle 
until wanted. 

Silver Wire. —Pure silver wire is used for suturing bones, 
and also by some operators for sutures of the cervix, perineum, 
harelip, etc. The sizes usually employed are Nos. 24 to 30. Such 
wire costs about two dollars and fifty cents an ounce. It is also 
used in the manufacture of filigrees, employed in some opera¬ 
tions for hernia. Other kinds of wire, and notably an aluminum 
bronze, are employed a good deal in Germany, but have never 
obtained much popularity in this country. Antiseptic powers are 
claimed for them by their advocates. 

DRAINS 

Glass and Metal Drainage Tubes. —The use of rigid 

tubes for drainage is not now so general as it was at one time. 
Glass tubes are easily cleaned both inside and outside, and it is 
easy to see whether they are clean or not; but owing to their 
rigidity, they are apt to cause pain, so that their field is a re¬ 
stricted one. There are instances in which it is important to use 
a tube which will not collapse, and then a glass, or hard rubber, 
or metal tube is employed; but the ordinary purposes of drainage 
are accomplished just as well by the use of a flexible rubber tube, 
or one of the still more flexible gauze drains. Glass drainage 



GUTTA-PERCHA DRAINS 


577 


tubes cost from ten to forty cents eacli, according to their shape 
and size. 

Soft Rubber Drainage Tubes. —Rubber tubing of vari¬ 
ous calibers forms a satisfactory material for drainage. Such 
tubing costs from seven to twenty cents a foot, according to the size 
and quality. The drainage tube can be prepared from a piece of 
tubing as follows: A piece of tubing of the required size, and hav¬ 
ing a smooth surface, is selected and cut to the required length. 
The end which enters the body is cut obliquely, and its sharp edge 
trimmed away with a pair of scissors. With a pair of curved 
scissors two or more oval openings are cut in the sides of the 
tube, beginning near its inner end, so as to permit the escape 
of pus in case the end of the tube is obstructed by contact with 
the tissues. The long axis of these openings is made parallel to 
the long axis of the tube, so that the tube shall not be unneces¬ 
sarily weakened (Fig. 418, p. 760). A little practise will enable 
one to cut these openings neatly; or if one is very particular, they 
may be burned out with a Paquelin cautery. This gives an open¬ 
ing with a smooth rounded edge, like the opening of a velvet eye 
catheter. 

Catheters make excellent drainage tubes. Additional holes 
should be cut in them if necessary. The rounded tip may be 
left or removed, according to circumstances. If it is allowed to 
remain, insertion of the drainage tube is thereby facilitated. 

In draining large wounds, and especially if irrigation is to be 
employed, two tubes should be used and fastened together at the 
top by a safety pin (Fig. 102, /, p. 176). This insures freer 
drainage and allows the irrigating fluid to flow into one tube and 
out of the other. 

Gutta-percha Drains. —Gutta-percha tissue is an excellent 
drainage material, especially for fresh wounds (see p. 760). It is 
employed in two ways: A piece of tissue, an inch or two wide, 
is folded upon itself until it makes a strip a half inch wide, more 
or less. Such a flat strip occupying very little space in a wound, 
and not adhering to the tissues, scarcely disturbs the aseptic heal¬ 
ing of a wound. It is frequently inserted between the sutures of 
a wound at the close of operation in order to facilitate the escape 
of blood and serum. Moreover, if the operator is not sure of 
his asepsis, a drain of this character will allow the escape of any 


578 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


pus which may form, and prevent its burrowing in the deeper 
tissues. Two days after operation the wound should be re¬ 
dressed. If its appearance is satisfactory, the rubber tissue drain 
is removed, and the wound is allowed to unite primarily. If 
there is a seropurulent or purulent discharge the surgeon may 
decide to allow the drain to remain in place longer, or he may 
think it better to remove some of the sutures and introduce larger 
drains. 

Cigarette Drains.—Gutta-percha alone gives a flat drain; com¬ 
bined with gauze it forms a round or oval drain. This is known as 
a cigarette drain. A roll of gauze of the required size is wrapped 
with rubber tissue, as the tobacco in a cigarette is wrapped with 
paper. Hence the name “ cigarette ” drain. The gauze should 
project slightly from the lower end of the drain, and should not 
be too tightly rolled (Fig. 418, p. 760). If the gutta-percha tis¬ 
sue shows a tendency to unwind, its edge may be stuck down with 
chloroform. Drains of this character are often employed in deeper 
wounds, for the same reasons that a flat gutta-percha drain is em¬ 
ployed in shallow wounds; for example, after appendectomy, when 
there is a possibility that suppuration may form in the deeper 
tissues. Such a drain can be easily removed, since the only por¬ 
tion which can become adherent is the gauze at its lower end. 
For this reason the gauze should not project far beyond the gutta¬ 
percha tissue. 

When gutta-percha tissue grows old it becomes brittle; hence 
it should be tested before it is used as a drain, lest a portion of 
the drain break off and remain in the wound. The tissue can 
be cut with scissors or torn. It has a distinct grain, so that in 
tearing it in one direction the motion should be quick; while in 
tearing it in the other direction, one must tear it very slowly in 
order to follow a straight line. 

A finger from a rubber glove, or a finger cot from which the 
tip has been cut away, makes an excellent casing for a cigarette 
drain. 

Gauze Drains -Gauze is often used for drainage, either 

plain or impregnated with different chemicals. Its chief disad¬ 
vantage is the fact that it adheres so closely to the surface of 
the wound. These adhesions give way in five days to a week, 
but by that time granulations may already have grown into the 


HORSEHAIR DRAINS 


579 


meshes of the gauze. In spite of this drawback, gauze is used 
for drainage far more than any other material, both because it is 
always at hand, and because it is so flexible. It is not, however, 
a good thing to use in the case of a sensitive patient on account 
of the pain caused by its removal. The most favorable time for 
the removal of a gauze drain is five or seven days after its inser¬ 
tion in a fresh wound. 

The gauze drain may be of any size. A flat drain is formed 
by folding in the edges of a strip of gauze so that no loose 
threads appear. The two ends of the strip are then brought to¬ 
gether, and the fold is inserted into the wound. This method 
facilitates the insertion of the drain, and also prevents loose 
threads from remaining in the wound when the drain is with¬ 
drawn. 

A roll of gauze may be covered with gutta-percha tissue, 
making a cigarette drain (see opp. page). In this manner adhe¬ 
sions between the gauze and the surface of the wound are 
effectually prevented, and the drain can be easily removed at any 
time. 

A Handkerchief Drain.—If the wound is a large one, and it 
is desired to keep it distended with a large quantity of gauze, 
adhesions may be reduced to a minimum by adopting the so-called 
Mikulicz method. This is also called a handkerchief drain. A 
single layer of gauze like a handkerchief is spread over the sur¬ 
face of the wound, and poked into all the recesses into which it 
is desired to carry the drains. Large flat gauze drains made in 
the manner above described are then carried into the different 
portions of the wound. The handkerchief limits adhesions be¬ 
tween these central drains and the wound, so that they can be 
removed without much difficulty at any time. When they have 
been removed, the handkerchief itself being only a single layer, 
can be peeled off from the surface of the wound to which it is 
adherent. 

Horsehair Drains. —Small drains may be made of threads, 
or horsehairs, by tying a number of them together, twisting the 
bundle, doubling it on itself, and allowing it to twist backward 
(Fig. 418, p. 760). Drains of this character are especially serv¬ 
iceable in scalp wounds, on account of the ease with which they 
can be inserted between the stitches. 


580 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


SPLINTS 

Tlie materials in common use for rigid splints are wood, 
sheet metal, and wire cloth. Numerous composite materials have 
been made for splints, but they have never come into general use. 
The essentials of a good splint are rigidity, lightness, and cheap¬ 
ness. If, in addition to this, the splint could be molded, say 
by warming it to a temperature at which it could still he worked 
by the hands, or by immersing it in some harmless fluid, it would 
be ideal. Unfortunately, we possess no such material. Thus, 
hard rubber in sheets can he molded at a high temperature, hut 
cannot then he handled. A composition made up of wood pulp 
and fiber becomes somewhat more flexible when soaked in water, 
and can be easily curved in one direction, as can pasteboard, but 
it cannot be curved in two directions, for instance, so that it will 
fit the flexed elbow. Modeling composition is easily molded, but 
it lacks strength. 

Wood Splints. —Wood remains the common material for a 
ready-made splint, because of its lightness and easy accessibility. 
Bass wood an eighth of an inch thick answers very well. This 
wood is easily cut with a knife, and is not inclined to split. It 
has, however, no great strength. In most cases a splint of wood 
must be padded irregularly to make it conform to the shape of 
the part with which it comes in contact. 

Coaptation Splints. —If a wooden splint is backed with a 
sheet of kid or adhesive plaster, and is cut or split longitudinally 
into a number of pieces, a coaptation splint is formed. This is 
of use to fit the limb. For example, after fracture of the cen¬ 
ter of the humerus or femur, two, three, or four such splints are 
often strapped around the injured portion of the limb. 

Metal Splints. —Tin, aluminum, and other metals in the 
form of thin sheets are used for splints. On account of the dif¬ 
ficulty of cutting them, they are not ordinarily employed except 
in a ready-made form. Such manufactured splints are extremely 
light and strong, and are much to be recommended if a person 
has to wear a removable splint for a long time. The splint should 
be perforated to permit the perspiration to evaporate, and made 
of a composition which does not easily rust. The chief objection 
to these splints is the difficulty in having on hand at the time it 


METAL SPLINTS 


581 


is wanted a splint that will exactly fit the patient. For this rea¬ 
son it is usually better in acute cases to mold a gypsum splint at 
the time it is required (p. 589). 

There is one form of tin splint which the writer has used 
with such success that he can highly recommend it, even though 
its manufacture dulls the edge of a pair of scissors. It is cut 
from tin. The thin tin of the cracker box answers perfectly. 
If one has tin shears to do this work so much the better; but any 
heavy scissors will answer by cutting well up into the hinge. A 
pattern of the splint should first he cut out in paper, then the 
splint is cut from the tin. Its edge is turned over with a pair 
of pliers, or by gripping it with the handles of the bandage scis¬ 
sors, so that when it is applied to the hand it will not press into 
the skin. The proper curve is then given to the portion which fits 
the hand and the portion which fits the finger, and the two are 
bent at the required angle (Fig. 211, p. 426). 

Wire Netting.— -A coarse wire gauze, eight wires to the inch, 
such as is used for making sieves, can be used to make a posterior 



Fig. 306. —Angular Splint Made in the Office from Wire Cloth with no 
Other Tool than a Pair of Bandage Scissors. 


right angled splint for the elbow. A strip is cut eight or ten 
inches wide, and long enough to reach from the axilla over the 
point of the elbow, and to the tips of the fingers, if it is desired to 
support the hand. At a distance of eight inches from one end 
a transverse cut is made on either side, extending one-thiid of 









582 


surgical dressings 


the distance across the splint. Each raw edge of the splint, 
for a distance of two wires, is now turned over and pounded down 
flat. The sides of the splint are then bent up so as to give the 
whole splint something of the shape of a half cylinder. It is 
next bent at the required angle, at the level of the two cuts that 
were made, the portion intended for the forearm passing within 
the sides of the portion of the splint intended for the upper arm. 
The splint is fixed in this position with wire or string, tied 
through at least two places on either side (Eig. 306). This 
makes a strong and light angular splint, although of course it 
does not fit the limb with any degree of exactness. 

THE USE OF GYPSUM—OR PLASTER OF PARIS 

Gypsum Bandages. —Gypsum, often called plaster of 
Paris, has virtually superseded such materials as dextrin and 
liquid glass, formerly employed for rigid bandages. Gypsum 
can he used in two ways: The dry gypsum and water can he 
stirred up until a cream is formed, and this can be rubbed into 
a gauze or muslin bandage after the latter has been partly or 
wholly applied to the limb. This is at best a crude method, and 
does not make the best use of the two materials, owing to their 
very imperfect union. The other and better method consists in 
incorporating the dry gypsum in a roller bandage, thoroughly wet¬ 
ting the latter and applying the bandage, the meshes of which are 
then full of moist gypsum. After the bandage is complete, the 
plaster sets, having taken up water of crystallization, so that in 
ten or fifteen minutes the bandage will be quite firm, and the 
patient can be moved, if necessary. It takes several hours for all 
the surplus water to evaporate, and until the bandage is quite dry 
it should not be subjected to any rough handling. If it is once 
cracked, a permanent weak spot is created, which can be only 
imperfectly overcome by a patch of additional plaster. 

The strength of a gypsum bandage lies in the combination of 
the fabric which has power to resist tearing strains, but is very 
flexible, and in the plaster, which has no elasticity, and is very 
rigid, but which breaks easily if bent. It is the same principle 
of construction now so widely adopted in steel and concrete build¬ 
ings. It is of the greatest importance that the gypsum used 


GYPSUM BANDAGES 


583 


should be freshly calcined, since it gradually takes up moisture 
from the. air, and becomes slake. Gypsum which is partially air 
slaked will take up water readily like so much sand, but no chem¬ 
ical change takes place. The gypsum never sets, in other words, 
and when it drys it has no more strength than dried mud. There 
is nothing in surgery more irritating than the attempt to immo¬ 
bilize a limb with such material. It is, therefore, the part of 
wisdom to test the gypsum beforehand, and if it is old to discard 
it. The best gypsum in the market is sold under the name of 
dental plaster. It comes in cans, holding six quarts each, and 
costs seventy-live cents per can. If a can is * kept closed from 
the air, and in a dry place, it will maintain its freshness even 
after it has been opened for a number of weeks. It is not at all 
necessary, however, to employ this particular preparation. Every 
store where painters’ materials are sold and every decorator and 
worker in plaster keeps a more or less fresh supply of gypsum. 
If the material is really fresh, it has a tremendous strength after 
it has set. I have put on bandages made from gypsum obtained 
at a paint-store that one could hardly crack with a hammer; and 
have attempted to put on others put up by the best surgical house 
in America, and bought of a respectable druggist, that were just 
a mess of wet cloth and white sand when they were finished. It 
is all in the age of the gypsum. As it is usually easier to obtain 
fresh gypsum than it is to obtain freshly made gypsum bandages, 
every one should know how to prepare his own. The method here 
given requires no especial apparatus, not even a bandage roller. 

Preparation of Gypsum Bandages. —The articles required are 
two pounds of fresh gypsum, costing five cents, six or eight 
yards of crinoline, costing about sixty cents, a board, or the 
top of an old table, and a table knife with a straight back. The 
crinoline is torn into strips from two to four inches in width, ac¬ 
cording to the part of the body to be bandaged, and rolled. The 
end of a bandage is spread out upon the board for a distance of 
two feet. Three or four knifefuls of dry gypsum are dumped 
down upon it. The meshes of the crinoline are scraped full of 
the gypsum by drawing the back of the knife two or three times 
along it, and this portion of the bandage is loosely rolled up (Fig. 
307). Ho central core is made, as when a muslin bandage is 
rolled by hand, as it is better that the center of the bandage should 


584 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


be hollow. Another two feet of bandage are spread out flat, 
scraped full of gypsum, and rolled up. This process is continued 
until the whole strip of bandage has been converted into a roll. 
The bandage is prevented from unrolling by a pin or an elastic 



Fig. 307. —Making Gypsum Bandages from Crinoline, Showing the Various 

Stages of their Preparation. 


band around it; or it may simply be wrapped up in paper. The 
tendency of a beginner is to put too much gypsum into the 
bandage. 

To make such a bandage does not require more than five min¬ 
utes. It has two points of superiority over a commercial bandage. 
Crinoline is employed instead of gauze, so that the appearance 
of the completed plaster bandage is better and its strength is 
somewhat greater. Secondly, the bandage is loosely rolled, so 
that the water will permeate it quickly. It is impossible for a 
commercial bandage to be made in this manner. Shipping it 
about the country would rattle the gypsum almost entirely out 
of the meshes of the crinoline. Hence, the commercial bandage is 
made of gauze, is overfilled with gypsum, and is rolled tightly. 
Such a bandage does not wet quickly, and indeed should be loosely 
rerolled by hand before being dropped into water, if one wishes 
to get the best result from its use. 

From four to six gypsum bandages are required to immobilize 
the ankle of an adult, for instance, after a fracture of the ankle. 
Four will give a light bandage extending from the toes to the 
knee, and six a heavy bandage covering the same area- There 






A CIRCULAR GYPSUM SPLINT 


585 


is an almost universal tendency to make a plaster bandage twice 
or three times as thick as it should he. The unnecessary weight 
loads down a patient, and renders the removal of the bandage 
unnecessarily difficult. Other fabrics than crinoline can be em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture of gypsum bandages, provided their 
meshes are not too fine. Gauze answers very well. Recently a 
company has been introducing bandages in which a fine wire 
cloth is employed. 

A Circular Gypsum Splint—or Plaster Cast. —The tech¬ 
nique of application of gypsum bandages is important, if one 
wishes to get the best out of this material. The limb of the patient 
should be shaved, washed, and dried. It should then be covered 
with a thin layer of cotton or other elastic material. This may be 
held in place by a few spiral turns of a gauze bandage. The sheet 
wadding which is employed by dressmakers is an excellent mate¬ 
rial with which to cover the limb. It tears readily into strips, has 
a uniform thickness which it is difficult to give to absorbent cotton, 
and if wound spirally around the limb it will remain in place 
without a gauze bandage. Or the limb may be covered with a 
flannel bandage. 

A deep bowl or jar containing sufficient warm water to more 
than cover the bandage when standing on end should be at hand. 
One loosely rolled gypsum bandage is placed on end in the water. 
Bubbles of air at once rise to the surface, and continue to do so 
until the bandage is wet through. It should then be lifted from 
the jar, squeezed partially dry with both hands, and applied. One 
should avoid milking the gypsum out of the bandage while it is 
in the water. 

The application of a gypsum bandage is similar to that of a 
dry roller bandage, but there are certain points of difference. 
The gypsum bandage never slips, so that it is unnecessary to 
draw it taut. Tension during the application is, in fact, a dis¬ 
advantage, since the unequal pressure tends to make ridges in 
the inner surface of the completed splint. The strength of the 
splint is in the material, and the aim should therefore be to 
apply it evenly. Reverses should never be made, since the end 
which they serve in a dry bandage is better accomplished in 
plaster by the use of “ darts. ” A figure of eight of the type often 
employed in dry bandages when the upper circles of several figures 


586 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


of eight exactly overlie each other is seldom desirable. This is 
apt to make the splint thicker in places than in otneis, and it 
offers no advantages which cannot be obtained by the use of the 

short figure of eight with a dart. 

The moistened bandage is anchored by a single circular turn, 
and is at once carried spirally upward. The overlapping should 
not be for more than one-half the width of the bandage. hTo 
traction should be applied in an attempt to make the two edges of 



Fig. 308. —Making a “Dart” in a Gypsum Bandage. 

the bandage lie smooth. As soon as any fulness of the lower edge 
is noticed, the bandage should be carried sharply upward and 
around the limb, and sharply downward again. The fulness in the 
lower edge of the ascending portion of this short figure of eight is 
taken up by the change in the direction of the bandage. The ful¬ 
ness in the descending portion is kept up out of the way by the 
thumb and finger of one hand, and is pasted smoothly backward 
against the rest of the bandage (Fig. 308). The dart thus made 
and folded back sticks instantly. Another spiral turn may now 
be introduced, and then a figure of eight, or the figures of eight 




A CIRCULAR GYPSUM SPLINT 


587 


each with a dart in the downward turn may he applied without 
intervening spirals. In this manner any portion of any limb, no 
matter what its shape, can he evenly covered with the bandage, 
various turns of which should he well rubbed together before the 
gypsum has time to set. 

In starting a second bandage, one should select the descend¬ 
ing turn of a figure of eight some three or four inches below the 
upper margin of the first bandage. The second bandage should 
be directed downward, so that it will exactly follow the first band¬ 
age around the limb and upward. This avoids any break between 
the first bandage and the second. A sufficient number of figures 
of eight, or spiral turns, are then applied to complete the cover¬ 
ing of the required area. If a thicker bandage is required, the 
third one should be begun at the bottom and should cover the area 
covered by the first one. The fourth one should overlap the third 
in the manner already described, and should cover the area cov¬ 
ered by the second one. This method of application gives a more 
even and stronger splint than if each bandage were made to cover 
but a small area, and that to a considerable thickness. 

If the gypsum bandages have been applied in the manner 
described, and care has been taken to make all lines exactly paral¬ 
lel that should be so, and to see that the pattern made by the 
intersection of the ascending and descending portions of the figure 
of eight turns lies exactly in the median line of the limb, the 
finished plaster splint will be much admired; but if the turns 
of the bandages have been irregularly applied, it may be better 
to obscure them by the application of additional gypsum cream. 
Some of the powdered gypsum should be stirred into water until 
thin paste is made. This should be rubbed evenly over the sur¬ 
face of the finished splint, and smoothed off by means of a wet 
cloth or compress. It is also a good plan to give the splint this 
smooth surface whenever it is likely to be soiled by escaping 
urine, discharge from a wound, etc. 

It is of the utmost importance that during the application of 
gypsum bandages the limb should be held exactly in the position 
which it is desired to maintain. Flexion of a joint or correction 
of a misplaced fracture is possible while the plaster is still soft, 
but it breaks the commencing crystallization, and makes a weak 
spot in the splint. Furthermore, the position of the limb should 


588 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


be carefully maintained until the plaster has fully set. This re¬ 
quires perhaps ten or twenty minutes, according to the freshness 
of the gypsum. During this period the limb should be held, or 
so arranged upon loosely filled sandbags, or hard pillows, that its 
weight is distributed over a considerable surface, and does not rest 
upon a single transverse ridge. 

It takes from twelve to twenty-four hours for a plaster splint 
to become thoroughly dry, and during this period the air should 
have access to the surface. Adjacent portions of the body, whether 
above or below the splint, may, of course, be covered. 

As soon as the plaster splint has been applied, the circula¬ 
tion in the portion of the limb beyond it should be examined. 
Color should promptly return after pressure made with the finger 
is removed, and the toes or finger-tips should not be much colder 
than those of the corresponding extremity. If the quality of the 
circulation is doubtful, one should wait a few minutes to see if 
it improves. If it does not, the plaster splint should be split from 
end to end, and any underlying constricting bandage should be 
cut. This will relieve the undue pressure. It is not necessary 
to remove the splint. An outside bandage of gauze or other 
flexible material should be applied over it to keep it in position. 

Removal of a Gypsum Splint.—Various saws and scissors have 
been devised for cutting through a gypsum splint. Most of them 
are extremely unsatisfactory. They work well enough on certain 
portions of the splint, but when it lies close to a bone beneath, 
or follows a convex surface, like the front of the ankle, these 
instruments give a great deal of trouble. On the whole, the most 
satisfactory tool is a sharp-bladed knife. This may be as large 
as a pruning-knife, or as small as an ordinary penknife; either 
one answers perfectly well if the blade is sharp. 

The surgeon selects the line upon which the plaster splint is 
to be cut, and marks the same with a swab of wet absorbent cotton. 
He then draws the knife the full length of it, making only moder¬ 
ate pressure. He draws it through the line a second time, mak¬ 
ing a little firmer pressure. He then draws the cotton once more 
along the line, filling the cut with water. As the knife is drawn 
through the cut the third time, the blade is inclined sharply to 
one side. At the fourth cut it is sharply inclined to the opposite 
side. In this manner a gutter is cut out of the plaster, which will 



MOLDED GYPSUM OR PLASTER SPLINTS 


589 


prevent the knife from “ binding ” in a deep cut. These vari¬ 
ous steps are repeated until the cut has extended through the 
piaster to the sheet wadding or absorbent cotton beneath. This 
material prevents the knife from cutting the patient unless an 
unreasonable amount of force is applied. By following this 
technique one can easily cut through a gypsum splint of the leg 
and foot in five or six minutes. 

To Cut a Window or Fenestra.—This is necessary in order 
to permit the dressing of a wound without the removal of a gyp¬ 
sum splint, as in cases of compound fracture, etc. If there is 
more than one wound, it is usually better to apply molded plaster 
splints, both longitudinal and circular, rather than to cut numer¬ 
ous fenestra?. 

In every case the site of the wound should be determined by 
longitudinal and transverse measurements made before the limb 
is bandaged. The appearance of the limb is so altered by the 
application of a plaster splint that it is unwise to trust to mem¬ 
ory as a guide to the cutting of the fenestra. The gauze dressing 
which is used to cover the wound should correspond to the size of 
the fenestra to be cut, and it should he held in place by only one 
or two circular turns of bandage. This will make it unnecessary 
to cut through many thicknesses of gauze, and the plaster splint 
will fit the limb more accurately than it will if many thicknesses 
of gauze are wound around the limb. 

The fenestra is marked out with a knife or pencil, according 
to the measurements taken before the limb was covered. The 
gypsum splint is then cut through layer by layer in the man¬ 
ner described for the removal of a splint. This should be done 
after the plaster has set, but before it has fully dried. The inner 
dressing may he removed immediately and reapplied, or it need 
not be disturbed until later. In every case a thick pad or com¬ 
press should be used to fill up the gap made by the removal of 
the plaster. This should be held in place with a firm circular 
bandage; otherwise the portion of skin underlying the fenestra 
will likely become very edematous. 

Molded Gypsum, or Plaster Splints. —Splints freshly 
made from gypsum bandages and molded to the injured part before 
the gypsum has set, are of the greatest use in the treatment of frac¬ 
tures of the upper and lower extremity. They can be applied 



590 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


immediately after a fracture, since they do not dangerously in 
terfere with the swelling of the limb as a circular plaster splin* 
may do. They are sufficiently light and can he applied and re¬ 
moved at pleasure; while unlike wood, they can he molded to fit 
the curved portions of the body. Such splints, weight for weight, 
have not the strength of a circular plaster splint, nor are they 
to be recommended when there is a marked tendency toward 
recurrence of displacement in the case of a fresh fracture. 

In most cases two molded splints are desirable. Each should 
be broad enough to encircle one-third or one-fourth of the limb 
to which it is to he applied. The curve thus given to the splint 
adds greatly to its strength. Its length should he determined by 
measurement before the splint is made. Eor light splints a single 
roller bandage suffices, while for heavier ones two, or even three, 
may be required. In some instances additional circular splints 
are employed to fix the lateral ones in place and make them more 
rigid. 

The required length of the splint is marked on a hoard or 
marble slab. The gypsum bandage is sunk in water, and after it 
ceases to bubble it is lifted out and squeezed partially dry (see 
p. 585). Its loose end is then held to the board by the thumb 
and finger of the left hand, and enough of the bandage is un¬ 
rolled to pass the second mark upon the hoard. The unrolling 
should he done in the air, so that when the bandage is allowed 
to sink upon the board, it may he free from longitudinal wrinkles. 
The left hand, now free, takes the bandage from the right, and 
carries it toward the left until the fold of the bandage just lies 
on the right hand mark. The thumb and finger of the right 
hand prevent it from being drawn beyond this mark, and the left 
hand unrolls sufficient bandage to pass the left hand mark. This 
second layer of bandage is allowed to rest upon the first, and the 
two are rubbed together by a stroke of the right hand made from 
left to right before the bandage is changed from the left hand 
to the right. The bandage is carried backward and forward in 
this manner until the splint has the required thickness. A little 
time is saved if an assistant guards the turns of the bandage at 
one of the marks, and rubs the various layers together. 

The completed splint should be at once molded to the bare 
limb. Hairs should have been shaved off, or pasted to the skin 


MOLDED GYPSUM, OR PLASTER SPLINTS 


591 


with vaseline, so that they will not become imbedded in the plas¬ 
ter; or the splint, before its application, may be lined with a 
single strip of canton flannel, which should slightly project at 
the edges and ends. The splint is applied, molded by the fingers 
to fit the part, and held in place by a gauze bandage until it sets. 
It may then he left in place, or the surgeon may prefer to remove 
it, and to lay it aside a day until it becomes thoroughly dry before 
reapplying it. The latter is a good plan to follow in the late 
treatment of fractures. The splint or splints may then he cov¬ 
ered with some cotton or woolen fabric stitched so as to make a 
complete casing. This should he just loose enough to follow easily 
the curves of the splint. 

If two or more splints are to he used, the second should he 
made as rapidly as possible, so that it may be applied before the 
first has time to set. 

A molded plaster splint may also he made as above described, 
except that a fine wire cloth is substituted for the crinoline in the 
preparation of the bandage. The splint so made is considerably 
stronger than one in which crinoline is employed. 

Reenforcing* a Gypsum Splint.—It is often desirable to increase 
the strength of a molded or circular gypsum splint in order to 
prevent it breaking at some point where the strain is greatest; 
for example, opposite the groin in the case of a spica of the groin. 

The material used for reenforcing the gypsum splint is gen¬ 
erally a light strip of metal, measuring half an inch or more in 
width and one-thirty-second of an inch or more in thickness, ac¬ 
cording to circumstances. A coarse wire cloth cut into strips, or 
even thin strips of wood, may also he used for the purpose. The 
technique of application is as follows, in the case of a circular 
bandage: The limb is encased with protective material (see p. 
585), and it is then bandaged with gypsum bandages until one- 
half of the required number of bandages has been employed. The 
thin metal strips are then bent until they accurately fit the part 
in a longitudinal direction. They are covered in by the remain¬ 
ing gypsum bandages, and the dressing is complete. 

In certain cases it is desirable to give the metal strip a greater 
hold upon the plaster; for example, if a circular splint is made 
in two portions, with a gap between them to permit of the dress¬ 
ing of wounds, or of extension of the limb in cases -of compound 


592 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 


fracture. Under sucli circumstances a piece of tin should be riv¬ 
eted to either end of the metal strip, and slightly curved to con¬ 
form to the shape of the limb. 

If the reenforcing strips of coarse wire cloth are used in a 
molded plaster splint, they should be shaped to the limb before 
the splint is made. Such reenforcing material can then be incor¬ 
porated in the molded splint as the latter is made. 

Gypsum or Plaster Casts. —It is often desirable to obtain 
a cast of some portion of the body for purposes of demonstration, 
or for means of comparison in order to show the change produced 
by a growth, or during treatment, or as a guide to the manu¬ 
facture of orthopedic apparatus. Such a cast may be obtained in 
several ways; thus every circular plaster bandage, when removed, 
is a mold of the part with which it has been in contact. It is 
usually, however, a very imperfect mold, since even with the 
greatest care it is impossible to make the bandage press equally 
upon every portion of the skin. A better method, therefore, is to 
employ a semifluid cream, or paste, made of powdered gypsum 
and water. The portion of the body in question is greased and 
half submerged in this paste, and kept there until the latter sets. 
Its upper surface is then greased, and a sufficient amount of paste 
is added to completely surround the portion of the body in ques¬ 
tion. When this has also set, the two half molds are removed. 
When they are applied together, they form a complete mold, from 
which a more or less perfect cast can be obtained, according to 
the skill of the workman. 

It is often necessary to obtain a cast of the foot from which 
to make braces for the correction of flatfoot. To do this success¬ 
fully requires not a little skill, and the description of the technique 
employed will enable one to make a cast of any other portion of 
the body in a similar manner. The directions are as follows: 

Remove by shaving or clip short the hairs on the dorsum of 
the toes and foot. Oil or grease every bit of'the skin, so that 
it may not adhere to the plaster. Let the patient lie down 
with the outer side of the affected foot downward. Make an oval 
ring with a heavy bath towel, and cover it with four or five thick¬ 
nesses of newspaper. Place the foot in the depression thus caused, 
and fill the depression with the gypsum cream or plaster until 
it rises to the level of the second toe, and is half way up the 


GYPSUM OR PLASTER CASTS 


593 


heel (Fig. 309). This gypsum cream is made by stirring freshly 
calcined powdered gypsum into warm water. The water should 
not he too warm, as the slaking of the gypsum increases the heat 
somewhat. It is a matter of nice judgment to determine when 
the cream is just thick enough. As a general rule it is better to 



Fig. 309.— Making a Cast of the Foot with Gypsum. The Mold Half 

Completed. 


have it too thin than too thick, since if it will not pour readily, 
it may not flow into all crevices, and air spaces will remain be¬ 
tween the skin and the plaster, and an imperfect mold will result. 
If the cream is too thin, it does not set readily, and flows away 
from the foot. When of just the right consistency it can be heaped 
up around the foot, and will remain there while adapting itself 
to the shape of the latter. 

When the first half of the mold has set, its upper surface 
should be oiled or greased, so that the second half may not stick 
to it. A fresh lot of gypsum cream is prepared and is poured 
very slowly over the exposed portion of the foot. Care should 
be taken to see that it is everywhere of sufficient thickness to 
permit of its removal without breaking. 

When the second half of the mold has set, it is trimmed down 
somewhat, so that its area of contact with the first half shall be 
reduced to a zone about half an inch wide. It is then carefully 
wedged up from the first half and removed. The foot is then 







594 


SURGICAL DRESSINGS 



withdrawn from the first half of the mold, and both parts are set 
aside to dry (Fig. 310). 

When the mold is dry, or even before it is dry, if one is very 
careful, its whole interior is oiled or greased and its two halves 


Fig. 310. — Making a Cast of the Foot with Gypsum. The two halves of the 
mold have been removed from the foot, trimmed, and set up to dry. 

are tied together in their correct relation. Its interior is then 
filled with a gypsum cream somewhat thinner than that employed 
in making the mold. I he mold should he held in such a position 
during this process that air may find ready exit. Mold and cast 
should he set aside to allow the latter to become thoroughly hard. 
The molds are then broken and removed, and slight irregularities 
in the cast are trimmed oft, or filled in with plaster cream, as the 
case may require. In the case of flatfoot it is usually customary 
to partially correct the deformity in the cast by shaving away 
some of the plaster from the under or inner side of the cast before 
sending it to the brace-maker. The area which the brace should 
cover should be marked on the cast with pencil. 

Plaster Jacket. iV plaster jacket is merely a heavy circular 
gypsum splint of the trunk, or possibly of the trunk and head. It 
is usually applied for some condition, such as tuberculosis of the 




PLASTER JACKET 


595 


spine, which renders it necessary to continue the treatment for 
many months; hence, the jacket should he made with great care. 

In most cases it is desirable that the patient’s spine should he 
fully extended during the application of the jacket, and until the 
gypsum has set. This is accomplished by suspending the patient 
from a tripod, or from a hook in the ceiling, a part of the weight 
being borne upon straps which pass under the arm, hut as much 
as possible of the weight resting on straps passed under the chin 
and occiput. The patient should wear a light balbriggan under¬ 
shirt or, still better, a cylinder of stockinette, with two holes for 
the arms. In either case a strip of gauze bandage should he placed 
between the stockinette and the hack, and another one between the 
stockinette and the chest, to he used as scratching strings. These 
will add greatly to the patient’s comfort, and will serve to remove 
a considerable amount of cast off epithelium. 

Bony prominences, such as the spinous processes of the verte¬ 
brae, should he protected from undue pressure by strips of saddler’s 
felt placed on either side of them. Bandages employed for the 
jacket should he three inches in width. From six to twelve are 
needed, according to the size of the patient. The manner of their 
application is in general that of an ascending or descending spiral 
bandage of the chest and abdomen, with additional forward and 
backward turns over the shoulders, or combined with the figure of 
eight bandage of both axillae (p. 626). It is of the greatest im¬ 
portance that the various layers of bandage should be thoroughly 
rubbed together as they are applied. 

After the gypsum has set, but before it is fully dry, the upper 
and lower margins of the plaster jacket and the holes for the arms 
are trimmed out smoothly with a sharp knife. The stockinette is 
then turned over these raw edges, and held in place by stitches 
passing between the upper and lower margins. 


CHAPTER XXI 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

Preparation of a Bandage. —A roller bandage is a strip of 
muslin, or other flexible material, which is closely wound upon 
itself from one end until it forms a roll. This may be done either 
with the fingers or with a machine called a bandage roller. In 
rolling a bandage by hand one should be careful to make the first 
portion rolled very firm, as otherwise it will be impossible to make 
the whole roll tight, and one cannot apply with satisfaction a 
bandage which has been loosely rolled. 

To roll a bandage by hand take eight inches of one end and 
fold it over upon itself. Do this the second and the third time. 
There will result a little mass of bandage about one inch in length. 
Seize the free edge of this and roll it tightly in upon itself until it 
becomes encircled by the single thickness of the bandage. Con¬ 
tinue in this manner with the thumb and finger-tips until a hard 
roll of at least one-half inch in diameter is formed. This is then 
transferred to the left hand and held between the thumb and first 
and second fingers, very much as a bobbin is held on the sewing- 
machine. I he loose jDortion of the bandage is passed out between 
the thumb and first finger of the right hand. By rocking motions 
of both hands the roll is turned away from the loose bandage and 
the latter is carried farther around the roll. In this way a very 
presentable bandage can be rolled in a few minutes. 

The bandage can be rolled more tightly and more quickly on 
a machine such as is shown in Figure 311. One end of the 
bandage is wrapped around the four-sided bar of the roller until 
it is caught. One hand then turns the roller while the other keeps 
the bandage smooth and taut. When the roll is finished, it is 
grasped firmly and the bar of the machine is turned a short dis¬ 
tance in the reverse direction. This loosens the hold of the 
596 


PREPARATION OF A BANDAGE 


597 


bandage on the bar, so that the bar can be withdrawn from 
the bandage. 

The materials ordinarily employed for a roller bandage are 
gauze, muslin, flannel, canton flannel, silk, stockinette, rubber, and 
crinoline. Each material has its special use (see Chapter XXII). 

Every roller bandage has two ends. The end which is free 
when a bandage is rolled up is called the initial extremity; the 



Fig. 311.—Rolling a Bandage on a Small Machine. 


other end, which is in the center of the bandage as it is rolled up, 
and is therefore the last part to be applied, is called the terminal 
extremity. The two surfaces of the bandage are spoken of as 
external and internal. The external surface is the only one 
which appears when the bandage is completely rolled up. 

If a bandage is rolled up from both ends, or if the initial ex¬ 
tremities of two bandages are pinned together, the bandage is 







598 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


called a double roller. For the uses of this bandage see Nos. 5 
and 8. 

Application of a Bandage. —In applying a roller band- 

age, the external surface should always be placed in contact with 
the skin. As the bandage is then applied, it will roll away from 
the limb, and constantly unwind itself; whereas, if the inner sur¬ 
face is applied to the patient, the bandage does not unroll readily, 
and is likely to be pulled out of the hand of the bandager. Of 
course when reverses are made, each one changes the surface of 
the bandage which is directed toward the patient, so that the ex¬ 
ternal surface of the bandage cannot always be directed toward 
the limb. 

Anchoring. r J lie bandage having been correctly placed, the 
ne xt step is to fix or anchor it. I he bandager with one finger 
or thumb, or with both digits, holds the initial extremity of the 
bandage firmly against the part around which the bandage is to 
be anchored, The other hand carries the bandage around such 
pait and back to the starting-point. As soon as the bandage has 
completed a little more than the circle, its own pressure will 
keep it from slipping, and the first hand lets go its hold. The 
bandage is now continued spirally, being passed from hand to 
hand as it is carried around the limb. Every person should 
practise bandaging until he can bandage easily from right to 
left, oi left to right, and cause the bandage to progress toward 
him or away from him, according to circumstances. 

Spiral Reverse—In applying a spiral bandage from the apex 
to the base of a cone, the edge of the bandage nearer the apex 
constantly travels through a smaller spiral than the edge of the 
bandage nearer the base. If the bandage is inelastic, the edge 
nearer the apex will always be loose. The limbs of the body, when 
a person stands erect, are inverted cones; hence the lower edge 
of a bandage applied to them will always be loose. In stout per¬ 
sons this is more marked than in slender ones. One should never 
attempt to overcome it by a hard pull upon the bandage. This 
will cause an undue pressure upon the upper edge of the band¬ 
age, which will be pressed into the flesh and will cause a spiral 
groove in the flesh. This fulness of the lower edge of the band¬ 
age is to be overcome by reversing the bandage, or by changing 
its direction, so that a figure of eight is formed. 


APPLICATION OF A BANDAGE 


599 


To make a reverse in a spiral bandage, the bandager should 
first select a longitudinal line upon which the reverses are to 
be made. For the sake of appearance, this is usually the center 
of the anterior or posterior surface of the limb. When the lower 
edge of the bandage becomes full, its direction should be changed, 



Fig.. 312.— Making a Reverse in a Spiral Bandage. The left hand holds the band¬ 
age, while the right reverses it. The angle made should be such that the ascend¬ 
ing and descending portions correspond in direction. 


until both edges lie equally smooth. While the right hand holds 
the bandage taut, the left thumb or forefinger is placed on the 
lower edge of the bandage, about an inch beyond the median line 
of the limb. The right hand slacks up the bandage beyond this 
point, and turns it smoothly on itself at such an angle that it 
will now descend the limb as rapidly as it ascended it before (Fig. 
312). When this is accomplished, the right hand again pulls the 
bandage taut, and the left hand is removed. 

Each time the bandage passes the median line of the limb, the 
bandage is again reversed, until the conical portion of the limb 
has been covered. 

Overlapping of the Turns. —The distance between the turns of 
bandage in a simple spiral or a spiral reverse should be equal to 
one-half or one-third of the width of the bandage. It is obvious 











600 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


that if the progress of each turn is just one-half the width of the 
bandage there will he a double layer of bandage over the whole 
surface, and four thicknesses of bandage in the reverses and points 
of crossing. If the progress of each turn is only one-third of the 
width of the bandage, there will be three thicknesses of bandage 
over the whole area covered, and six thicknesses in the reverses 
and points of crossing. The portion of the bandage where the 
reverses are made is the firmest part, and the part where the 
greatest amount of pressure is exerted. If, therefore, a reverse 
or a figure of eight bandage is applied in order to make pressure 
upon a wound, it is often desirable to bring the reverses directly 
over the wounded part, even at the sacrifice of appearance. 

Figure of Eight.—The second method of taking up the slack 
or fulness in the lower edge of a spiral bandage is known as a 



Fig. 313.—Making a Figure of Eight Turn Above the Greatest Circumfer¬ 
ence of the Forearm. 

figure of eight. The direction of the bandage is altered until 
both edges fit the surface equally. This means that the bandage 




APPLICATION OF A BANDAGE 


601 


is carried sharply upward. It is then carried around the limb, 
and brought sharply downward, crossing the upward turn at a 
point a half an inch or more beyond the median line of the limb 
(Fig. 313). 

If the part of the limb utilized for this figure of eight is a 
perfect cone, the distances traveled by the upper and lower edges 
of the bandage are not equalized by this maneuver, since what is 
gained by carrying the bandage sharply upward is lost again by 
bringing it sharply downward. The practical point is the fact 
that the fulness is all kept in the upper horizontal portion of the 
figure of eight where it will he covered by subsequent turns of the 
bandage. 

If the figure of eight is so placed that its lower loop is around 
an inverted cone, and its upper loop is around an upright cone, 
then there exists a real equalization of the distances traveled by 
the upper and lower edges of the bandage, and a considerable 
amount of fulness is disposed of. This happens in the case of 
the figure of eight of the leg, provided it reaches above the great¬ 
est circumference of the calf; in the figure of eight of the upper 
part of the forearm; in the figure of eight of the swollen knee, etc. 

Where the figure of eight turn leaves the spiral there is a thin 
spot or even a triangular gap in the bandage. This should he 
covered in by an additional spiral turn introduced between the 
first and second figure of eight turns. 

The Spiea.—The name spica was originally suggested by the 
resemblance of the crossings in a spiral reverse, or figure of 
eight bandage to an ear of wheat or barley. It is now generally 
restricted to such figure of eight bandages as cover a joint between 
an extremity and the trunk, or between a smaller and a larger 
portion of an extremity. For instance, the spica of the shoulder 
(Fig. 362, p. 652) or the spica of the thumb (Fig. 372, p. 660). 
With this restriction, the name serves a useful purpose, whereas 
if it were applied indiscriminately to every spiral reverse or figure 
of eight bandage, it would have comparatively little value. 

The Amount of Pressure.—The pressure exerted by a bandage 
should he uniform. This is best secured by applying the bandage 
under slight constant tension, and by introducing a reverse or a 
figure of eight as soon as one edge of the bandage is looser than 
the other. There is a tendency for beginners to exert too much 



602 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 



pressure upon a bandage during its application. As a result, 
the patient is made uncomfortable, and the circulation is inter¬ 
fered with, so that if the limb has already been injured, areas 
of necrosis or gangrene may result. One should always note the 
character of the circulation after applying a bandage to an ex¬ 
tremity, and if the tip of the extremity is cyanotic, or the bandage 
is painful, it should be-removed and reapplied. This takes but 

a few minutes, and 
may obviate hours of 
discomfort, or some 
more serious compli¬ 
cation. Whenever a 
bandage is applied for 
pressure, it should 
either be an elastic 
bandage or it should 
be placed outside of a 
layer of elastic mate¬ 
rial, such as unbleached 
cotton or lamb’s wool. 
The pressure will then 
be diffuse, and the risk 
of injury to the tissues 
will be minimized. 

Completion of the 
Bandage •—The band¬ 
age is usually com¬ 
pleted by a circular 
turn. The end is then 
stitched or pinned or 
stuck down with a 
short piece of adhesive 
plaster; or the end of 
the bandage is split, 
and one-half of it is 
carried around the limb in the opposite direction, and the two 
ends are tied together (Fig. 314). 


Fig. 314. — Fastening a Bandage by Splitting 
the End and Tying the Halves Together 
Around the Limb. The right hand holds the 
half of the bandage which is to be carried around 
the limb in the reverse direction. Note that 
this half of the bandage crosses underneath tne 
other half. 







HORIZONTAL CIRCULAR BANDAGE OF HEAD 


603 


BANDAGES OF THE HEAD 

No. 1. Horizontal Circular, or Occipitofrontal; a 
Two Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is a 
circular zone across the forehead, above both ears, and across the 
occipital region. It is of use to control hemorrhage from scalp 
wounds, and to fix a dressing anywhere in this area. 

The bandage is started on the forehead or occipital region 
and carried around the head until the occipitofrontal circle is 



Fig. 315.—Occipitofrontal Bandage of the Head, Showing Anchoring. 

completed (Fig. 315). This anchors the bandage. Several addi¬ 
tional turns are then made directly over the first one in front, 
but slightly above and below it behind, in order to prevent it 
from slipping. If greater security is desired, as in the case of 
an alcoholic patient, the single or double oblique circular (Nos. 
2 and 3) should be added, and the four intersections stitched 
or pinned. Greater security is also obtained by giving the band¬ 
age a half twist with every half circle or every full circle. This 
takes up the slack at the edges of the bandage. 




604 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


No. 2. Oblique Circular; a Two Inch Bandage.— 

The area covered by this bandage is the vertex of the skull, the 
temporal region and cheek of one side, the under surface of the 
chin, and the mastoid region of the other side. It is useful in 
scalp wounds, and to hold a dressing in place either in front of 
or behind the ear. It is not so firm a bandage as the double 
oblique circular (Ho. 3) or the crossed circular (Ho. 4). 

The bandage is started on the vertex of the skull, and carried 
behind one ear under the chin, in front of the other ear, and back 



Fig. 316. —Oblique Circular Bandage of the Head, the First Turn 

Completed. 


to the starting-point (Tig. 316). This anchors the bandage. Sev¬ 
eral additional turns are made directly over the first one. 

No. 3. Double Oblique Circular; a Two Inch Band¬ 
age. —The area covered by this bandage is the vertex of the skull, 
the temporal and mastoid regions and cheeks of both sides, and 
the under surface of the chin. It is useful in scalp wounds, and 
to hold a dressing in place either in front of or behind the ear. 
It is a firmer bandage than Ho. 2, and may be made to cover a 





CROSSED CIRCULAR BANDAGE OF HEAD 


605 


greater area on the vertex of the skull, since the succeeding turns 
may overlap a little without slipping. 

The bandage is started on the vertex of the skull, and carried 
behind the left ear, beneath the chin, and in front of the right 



Fig. 317. —Double Oblique Circular Bandage of the Head, Showing the Com¬ 
pletion of the Second Turn. 

ear to the starting-point. This anchors the bandage. The second 
turn follows the first until it reaches the chin, and then ascends 
behind the right ear to the starting-point (Tig. 317). The third 
turn passes in front of the left ear, under the chin, and in front 
of the right ear to the starting-point. A repetition of these three 
turns will make a firmer bandage, and, if desired, the turns which 
pass in front of the ears may be carried slightly farther forward 
without weakening the bandage. This increases the area covered 
by the bandage on the cheeks, temporal regions, and vertex of 
the skull. 

No. 4. Crossed Circular; a Two Inch Bandage.— The 

area covered by this bandage is that of two intersecting circles, 










606 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


one horizontal and one vertical. The former is the occipito¬ 
frontal circle covered by bandage No. 1, and the latter is the 
circle covered by bandage No. 2. The bandage is chiefly used to 
control hemorrhage from the vertex of the head, or to maintain 
a dressing in position on the top of the head, in front of the ear, 
or at the angle of the jaw. The occipitofrontal circle serves to 
retain the other in position. 

The bandage is started beneath the chin and carried upward 
in front of the ear on the injured side, across the top of the head, 
and behind the ear on the opposite side to the starting-point. This 
anchors the bandage. Subsequent turns may exactly overlie the 



Fig. 318. —The Crossed Circular, One of the Best Head Bandages. The illus¬ 
tration shows the completion of the second circle. 

first, or may overlap it slightly in front or behind. The end of 
the bandage is fastened with a pin or with adhesive plaster. A 
circular bandage is next applied from the forehead to the occiput 

(h ig. o 18). A\ hen this circle is completed, the intersections of 
the two circles are sewed or pinned. 

d he horizontal circular bandage can be equally well combined 
with the double oblique circular bandage (No. 3). 





KNOTTED BANDAGE OF HEAD 


607 


No. 5. Knotted Bandage; Two Two Inch Bandages, 
or a Double Roller. —The area covered by this bandage is 
composed of two intersecting circles, the occipitofrontal circle 
and the vertical circle. It is chiefly used to control hemorrhage or 



make pressure in the temporal region. It may be applied with 
a double roller or with two single rollers, the initial extremities 
of which are pinned or stitched together. 

The center of the double roller is placed over the right ear, 
and the two ends are carried horizontally, one across the fore¬ 
head and the other across the occiput, until they meet in the 
temporal region of the left side. They are then crossed, and the 
lower roller is carried upward over the vertex and the upper 
roller downward under the chin (Tig. 319). When they meet 






608 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


in the right temporal region they are again crossed, the anterior 
roller being carried around the occiput, and the posterior one 
across the forehead. By repeating these turns several times, 
firm pressure will be made in each temporal region. Care should 
be taken to see that the knots or intersections of the bandage 
exactly overlie each other. 

No. 6. Figure of Eight of Head; a Two Inch Band¬ 
age. —The area covered by this bandage is the central portion 
of the vertex of the skull, both temporal regions, both cheeks, 
and the under surface of the chin, both parietal regions and 
the lower part of the occipital region. It is a very firm bandage, 
especially when combined with the horizontal circular (No. 1), 
and is serviceable to control hemorrhage or fix a dressing on the 
vertex of the skull where a very firm pressure is easily made. 



Fig. 320.—Figure of Eight Bandage of the Head, Showing Anchoring. 


The bandage is started on the vertex, about over the coronal 
suture, and carried in front of one ear, under the chin, and in 
front of the other ear to the starting-point. It is then carried 
under the occiput and back to the starting-point. This anchors 






SINGLE HOLLER BANDAGE OF HEAD 609 

the bandage, but two or three additional figure of eight turns are 
necessary in order to make it solid. The point of intersection of 
this bandage should be far enough forward tc keep the occipital 
loop from slipping upward. Succeeding turns may overlap each 

other a little on the vertex, thus increasing the area covered (Fig. 
320). 

No. 7. Recurrent or Single Roller; a Two Inch 
Bandage. The area covered by this bandage is the whole scalp, 
but it exerts firm pressure only in the occipitofrontal circle cov- 



Fig. 321.— Single Roller Bandage of the Head. Beginning in the median line 
the surgeon lays each succeeding turn of the bandage a little farther to the right 
and left. 

ered by bandage No. 1. It is of use to keep a dressing of the 
scalp in place, but it should not be employed to control hemor¬ 
rhage from scalp wounds of the vertex, for which purpose bandages 
No. 4 and No. 6 are better. 

The bandage is started on the forehead, and carried directly 
over the vertex to a point a little below the occiput, reversed and 
carried back to the starting-point. In making this return the 
bandage should overlap itself to the right by one-half its width. 







610 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


It is reversed on the forehead, and carried to the occiput, over¬ 
lapping itself to the left by one-half its width (Fig. 321). These 
forward and backward turns are continued, each one a little 
farther from the median line than the preceding one, until the 
whole scalp is covered. Two circular turns, without reverses, 
are then carried across the forehead, above both ears, and across 
the occiput. These serve to fasten the whole bandage. As this 
bandage is not anchored until it is completed, it is necessary 
that either the patient or an assistant hold the loose ends of the 
reverses on the forehead. The surgeon can hold the loose ends 
under the occiput until the circular turns of the bandage fix them 
in position. On account of this drawback in its application, the 
double roller (FTo. 8) is usually preferred to the single roller. 

This bandage may he applied in two ways: The reverses on 
the forehead and occiput may all be made in the median line. 



Fig. 322.—Single Roller Bandage of the Head Completed. 


The various turns of the bandage will then all come to a single 
point in front, and to a single point behind, like the ribs of a 
melon (Fig. 322). Another method is to make the forward and 




DOUBLE ROLLER BANDAGE OF HEAD 


611 


backward turns more nearly parallel by making each reverse on 
the forehead and occiput a little farther from the median line. 
When half of the scalp has been covered, the bandage is carried 
through the occipitofrontal circle, and brought to the median line. 
It is there reversed, and by forward and backward turns the 
other half of the scalp is covered. 

Another variation of this bandage is to stop the forward and 
backward turns when only a part of the scalp has been covered, 
and then to fix the turns already made by two circular turns. 
In this manner, for instance, one-half of the vertex of the skull 
can be covered by the bandage. This variation is seldom em¬ 
ployed, since it is apt to loosen and get out of place. The double 
roller (No. 8) is better than the single roller for this purpose, 
or one may use the oblique circular (No. 2) or figure of eight 
(No. 6). 

No. 8. Recurrent or Double Roller; a One and One- 
Half Inch Bandage and a Two Inch Bandage. —The area 
covered by this bandage and the uses for which it is applied are 
the same as those of the single roller bandage (No. 7). Although 
it is somewhat firmer than the latter, it should not be used to 
control hemorrhage on the vertex. It has a distinct advantage 
over the single roller in that it can he applied by one person 
without assistance. 

The one and one-half inch bandage is started on the forehead 
and carried horizontally around the head. This anchors the 
bandage. A second turn is made directly over the first, but just 
before the bandage reaches the starting-point the end of the two 
inch bandage is laid beneath it, so that it may be anchored by 
the circular turn of the narrower bandage. Without changing 
hands, the operator carries the wider bandage across the vertex 
of the skull and down the neck, and carries the circular bandage 
over it at the occiput. It is now necessary to change each band¬ 
age to the other hand. The wider bandage is then carried to 
the forehead, slightly to the left of the median line, where it 
is again crossed by the circular bandage, and is then carried back 
to the occiput, slightly to the right of the median line. Bandages 
are again changed each to the other hand, and the wider bandage 
is again brought to the forehead, and crossed by the narrower 
one (Fig. 323). These forward and backward and circular turns 



Fig. 323.— Double Roller Bandage of the Head. Each circular turn of the nar¬ 
rower bandage fixes the reverse of the wider one on the forehead and on the occi 
put. 



Fig. 324. —Double Roller Bandage Completed 
612 










PARTIAL RECURRENT BANDAGE OF HEAD 


613 


are continued until the head is covered. One of the bandages 
is then cut off and an additional circular turn of the other 
bandage (the wider one in the case photographed) fixes the whole 
in position. The end of this bandage is fastened with adhesive 
plaster or a safety pin (Fig. 324). 

The disadvantage of this bandage consists in the thick band 
which is formed around the head by so many circular turns. It 
is to lessen this, and also to make it fit a little better, that the 
narrower bandage is chosen. The chief advantage of the bandage 
is the avoidance of turns beneath the chin. These are conspicu¬ 
ous and often uncomfortable, so that patients frequently object 
to them. 

No. 9. Partial Recurrent; a Modification of the 
Double Roller; Two One and One-Half Inch Bandages. 

—The area covered by this bandage is the horizontal circle from 



Fig. 325.—Partial Recurrent Bandage of the Head, Showing how the Trans¬ 
verse Turns are Anchored by the Circular Turns. Note the disposition 
of the hair. 

the forehead to the occiput, and any desired portion of the vertex. 
Its use is to keep a small dressing on the vertex without covering 






614 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


any portion of the face or neck, while permitting the patient to 
comb at least a portion of the hair. 

One bandage is anchored by carrying it horizontally around 
the head. The other bandage is caught in the circular turns 
at the side of the head, and is carried hack and forth trans¬ 
versely three or four times (Fig. 325). This gives a fairly firm 
bandage. It is especially serviceable in the case of a woman 
whose long hair can he parted transversely at the site of the 
wound, and brought out in two portions, one in front of and one 
behind the transverse part of the bandage. 

No. 10. Figure of Eight of One Eye; a One and 
One-half Inch Bandage. —The area covered is the horizontal 
occipitofrontal circle, and one eye, with a portion of the adjoining 



Fig. 326. —Figure of Eight Bandage of One Eye. 


cheek. The use of this bandage is to keep a dressing in place 
over the eye, or to protect the eye from light, etc. 

In order to bandage the right eye the bandage is started on 
the forehead, and carried over the left ear, across the occiput, 
over the right ear, and to the starting-point. This anchors the 





FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF BOTH EYES 


615 


bandage. It is then carried over the left ear, across the occiput, 
under the right ear, across the right cheek, and over the right eye 
close to the nose (Fi^. 326). The second horizontal circular 
turn is then made directly over the first, and a second oblique 
turn is made directly over the first oblique turn, until the cheek 
is reached. Here the bandage should be carried slightly above 
the first turn, so that on passing the eye the second turn progresses 
beyond the first by one-third of its width. This may complete 
the bandage, but usually a third circular turn and a third oblique 
turn are desirable. To avoid making pressure upon the eye, the 
oblique turns of this bandage should not be drawn tightly. The 
patient is usually more comfortable if the oblique turns are not 
all carried below the ear. It is sometimes a good plan to place a 

i 

thin fold of gauze or cotton behind the ear and then to allow the 
oblique turns to pass across the ear instead of below it. 

No. 11. Figure of Eight of Both Eyes; a One and 
One-half Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage 
is the occipitofrontal circle, both eyes, and a part of both cheeks. 
The use of this bandage is to keep dressings in place over both 
eyes or to protect both eyes from the light, etc. 

In bandaging one eye the oblique turns pass from the cheek 
to the eye, each one a little higher than the preceding one, as this 
gives a better fitting bandage. In bandaging both eyes, it is im¬ 
possible to do this on both sides of the face. The bandage should 
therefore encircle the head in such a manner that the oblique 
turns will ascend over the more seriously injured eye. Suppose 
this to be the right eye. The bandage is started on the forehead, 
and carried above the left ear across the occiput, over the right 
ear, and to the starting-point. This anchors the bandage. It is 
then carried over the left ear, across the occiput, beneath the right 
ear, across the right cheek and eye as low down as it is desired 
that the bandage should extend, and back to the starting-point. 
It is next carried above the left ear, across the occiput, above the 
right ear, back to the starting-point, and across the left eye and 
cheek as low down as it is desired that the bandage should extend. 
The succeeding oblique turns should be placed a little higher than 
the first ones. In this manner the bandage is continued until 
both eyes have been covered. A variation consists in placing a 
thin pad behind each ear, and carrying the oblique turns directly 


616 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 



across the ears, instead of below them (Fig. 32 f). This variation 
was followed in the bandage shown in the accompanying illus¬ 
tration. 


Fig. 327.— Figure of Eight Bandage of Both Eyes. The bandage has been an¬ 
chored, and the second oblique turns over each eye have been applied. 

\ 

No. 12. Four-tailed Bandage ; a Three Inch Bandage, 
Thirty-six Inches Long. —This bandage is employed to make 
pressure upward and backward upon the point of the chin. It is 
therefore useful in fracture of the lower jaw. A strip of muslin 
a yard long and three inches wide is split up from each end to 
within five inches of the center. The four ends thus made are 
called “ tails. 77 In the center of the bandage a longitudinal slit 
is made, or an elliptical piece, two inches in length, is cut out 
(Fig. 8, p. 21). The opening is placed over the point of the chin; 
one-half of the bandage will then rest beneath the chin and the 
other half upon its anterior surface. Those two ends, or “ tails, 77 
of the bandage, which are a continuation of the half of the band¬ 
age which is in front of the chin, are carried backward beneath the 
ears, and tied together in a square knot at the occiput. The other 
two “ tails 77 of the bandage are carried upward across the cheeks, 









BARTON’S BANDAGE 


617 


and tied together in front of the coronal suture. The four ends 
which have been left long for the purpose are then tied together 
on the vertex, one pair to the right of the median line and the 
other pair to the left of the median line. In tying these knots 
sufficient strain should he put upon the bandage to draw the chin 
upward and backward. 

A simpler plan, though possibly a little less comfortable to the 
patient, is to tie the pairs of “ tails ” together in the median line 



Fig. 328.— The Four-tailed Bandage. Tying the final knot exerts pressure upon 

the chin, both upward and backward. 

(Fig. 328), or to cut off one “tail” after the frontal knot has 
been tied, and one “ tail ” after the occipital knot has been tied, 
and to tie the two remaining “ tails ” in the median line. 

No. 13. Barton’s ; a Two Inch Bandage. —The area cov¬ 
ered by this bandage is the central portion of the vertex of the 
skull, both temporal regions, both cheeks, the under surface of 
the chin, the front of the chin, both parietal regions, the lower 
part of the occipital region, and the sides of the neck. Its use is 





618 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


not, however, to control a hemorrhage or maintain a dressing 
in any of these situations, but to exert pressure upon the chin, 
both upward and backward. It is applied in case of fracture 
of the lower jaw. It is a combination of the figure of eight of 
the head (Ho. 6) and a horizontal turn around the chin and 
neck. 

The bandage is started on the vertex at or in front of the 
coronal suture, and carried downward behind the left ear, across 
the back of the neck, forward beneath the right ear, across the 
chin, and horizontally backward to the occiput. It is then carried 
upward behind the right ear to the starting-point. From there 
it is carried downward in front of the left ear, across the cheek, 
under the chin, and upward in front of the right ear to the start¬ 
ing-point (Fig. 329). The bandage is then carried over the exist- 


Fig. 329.— Barton’s Bandage, with First Layer Completed. Tlie roller is rep¬ 
resented as just starting on the second layer. 

ing turns twice or three times, to give it added security. Inter¬ 
sections of the bandage may be stitched or pinned. This bandage 
is more complicated than the four-tailed bandage, and presents no 
points of advantage. 





GIBSON’S BANDAGE 


619 


No. 14. Gibson’s; a Two Inch Bandage. —This is a 
bandage composed of three circles—a circle from beneath the 
chin to the vertex of the skull, an occipitofrontal circle, and a 
horizontal circle from the front of the chin to the back of the neck. 
It is employed to draw the chin upward and backward in fractures 
of the lower jaw, but it is less satisfactory than either the four¬ 
tailed or the Barton bandage. 

The bandage is started at the vertex at or in front of the 
coronal suture, and is carried in front of the left ear, under the 



Fig. 330.—Gibson’s Bandage for Fracture of the Lower Jaw, Showing the 

First Reverse. 

chin, and in front of the right ear and back to the starting-point. 
Two additional turns are made directly over the first one. A 
fourth vertical turn is then started, but when it reaches the occipito¬ 
frontal circle the bandage is reversed (Fig. 330), and carried three 
times around this circle. A fourth horizontal turn is started, but 
when the bandage reaches the occiput, it is carried forward below 
the right ear, across the front of the chin, and backward below 
the left ear to the occiput. Two additional turns of this character 
are applied. When it reaches the occiput, the bandage is reversed 





Fig. 331.—Gibson’s Bandage Complete, Except for the Pinning of the Inter¬ 
sections. 




Fig. 332.—Figure of Eight Bandage of the Forehead and Chin. The occipito¬ 
frontal circle is complete, and the occipitomental circle is nearing completion. 

620 





FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF HEAD AND NECK 621 


again and carried in tlie median line over the vertex of the skull 
to the forehead (Fig. 331). The extremity is there stitched or 
pinned, as are all the intersections of the bandage—seven in all. 

No. 15. Figure of Eight of the Forehead and Chin; 
a One and One-half Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this 
bandage is made up of two circles. One is the occipitofrontal 
circle above the ears and the other the occipitomental circle below 
the ears. It is of use to control hemorrhage or to keep in place 
a dressing of the lower occipital region. 

The bandage is started on the forehead and carried around 
the head, above the ears, to the starting-point. This anchors the 
bandage. It is then carried above one ear to the occiput, and from 
there describes a circle below both ears and across the point of 
the chin, and back to the occiput (Fig. 332). From there it de¬ 
scribes alternately the frontal and mental circles, each two or three 

times. 

BANDAGES OF THE NECK AND AXILLA, ALONE AND IN 

COMBINATION 

No. 16. Circular of the Neck; a Two Inch Bandage. 

_The area covered by this bandage is a circle arouiid the neck. 

It is of use to fix a dressing within this area. 

The bandage is started at the back of the neck, and is carried 
around the neck till the starting-point is reached. This anchors 
the bandage. Two or three additional turns are applied (Fig. 

333) and the bandage is complete. 

It is sometimes possible to increase the area covered by this 
bandage by making of it an ascending or descending spiral. It is 
usually better under such circumstances to employ the combined 
head and neck bandage, or the combined bandage of the neck and 

axilla. __ 

No. 17. Posterior Figure of Eight of Head and Neck; 

a Two Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is 

composed of two circles—the occipitofrontal circle and the circle 

of the neck. 

The bandage is started on the forehead and carried around 
the head, above both ears, to the starting-point. This anchors 
the bandage. It is continued in the same circle to the occiput, 
and is then carried around the neck to the occiput (Fig. o34). 



Fig. 333.— Circular Bandage of Neck. 



Fig. 334.— Posterior Figure of Eight Bandage of Head and Neck. The 
pitofrontal turn is completed, and the cervical turn is nearly completed. 
622 


occi- 








FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF HEAD AND NECK 623 


These occipitofrontal and cervical turns are continued alternately 
two or three times. The addition of two or three turns around 
the neck will carry the bandage farther down the back of the neck, 
should this be necessary. 

No. 18. Anterior Figure of Eight of Head and Neck; 
a Two Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the 
horizontal circle of the neck, the under surface of the chin, the 
angle of the jaw, the cheek on one or both sides, the mastoid region 
on one or both sides, and the vertex of the skull. It is especially 
useful to keep in place dressings of the front and sides of the 
neck which extend too high for the circular bandage of the neck. 


Fig. 335. —Anterior 


Figure of Eight Bandage of the Head and Neck, Showing 
the Formation of the Second Loop. 


The bandage is started on the front of the neck and is carried 
toward the affected side, around the neck to the starting-point. 
This anchors the bandage. A second circular turn is made slightly 
*>ove the first. A third turn is started, but when it reaches the 
side of the neck it is carried over the top of the head, either in 





G24 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


front of or behind the ear, according to circumstances (Fig. 335). 
If it is carried in front of the ear, it must descend behind the 
opposite ear to the starting-point. If it is carried behind the ear, 
it may descend either in front of or behind the opposite ear. The 
fourth turn of the bandage again encircles the neck. The fifth 
turn is carried over the head. These alternate until the bandage 
is complete. ■ 

This bandage is rendered firmer by the addition of the hori¬ 
zontal circular bandage of the head (Ho. 1), with pinning or 
stitching of the intersections. 

Ho. 19. Figure of Eight of Neck and Axilla ; a Two 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the hori- 



Fig. 336.— Figure of Eight Bandage of Neck and Axilla. The bandage has 
been anchored around the neck, and the figure of eight turn is almost complete. 

zontal circle of the neck, the axilla, and the upper portion of the 
shoulder. It is useful to keep in place a dressing of the axilla, 




FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF NECK AND AXILLA 625 


and also to hold a dressing of the neck lower down at the side than 
is possible with the circular bandage of the neck. 

The bandage is started on the front of the neck, and is carried 
around the neck to the starting-point. This anchors the bandage. 
A second circular turn is made slightly below the first. A third 



Fig. 337. —Figure of Eight Bandage of Neck and Axilla, Showing the Addition 
of Simple Turns to Increase Its Lateral Area. 

I 

i 

turn is started, but when it reaches the affected side, it is carried 
over the shoulder, under the arm, and up over the shoulder to the 
front of the neck (Fig. 336), and so on around to the starting- 
point. By repeating this figure of eight turn two or three times 
it is possible to make the bandage progress a little in one direction 
or another, so as to increase somewhat the area covered upon the 
neck and axilla. If it is desired to extend the bandage still farther 
forward or backward, several simple turns should be made around 
the neck and under the arm (Fig. 337). If it is desired to extend 





626 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


the bandage farther down the arm, it should he combined with the 
descending spica of the shoulder (No. 35). If it is desired to 
extend the bandage still farther to the front or back, it should he 
combined with the anterior or posterior figure of eight of the chest, 
as the case may he. This combination is described under the 
name “ complete bandage of the neck ” (No. 22), of which the 
figure of eight of neck and axilla forms an important part. 

No. 20. Figure of Eight of Both Axillae; a Two 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is composed 
of both axillae and the lower portion of the neck. It is useful in 


Fig. 338.—Figure of Eight Bandage of Both Axilla. 

bandage is almost complete. 


As shown in the figure, the 


holding a dressing in the axilla, or in keeping an axillary pad 
in place in cases of fracture of the clavicle or of fracture of the 
upper end of the humerus. 

The bandage is started at the left side of the neck, close to the 
shoulder, and is carried across the front of the left shoulder, and 






OBLIQUE CIRCULAR BANDAGE OF NECK AND AXILLA 627 


backward across the left axilla and to the starting-point. This 
anchors the bandage. It is next carried across the front of the 
chest to the right axilla, backward across the right axilla, and 
over the top of the right shoulder, and across the front of the 
chest to the left axilla. It is carried across the left axilla, across 
the back to the top of the right shoulder, over the front of this 
shoulder (Fig. 338), and across the right axilla, and from there 
across the back to the starting-point. These various turns may 
be repeated two or three times. This gives a bandage which 
leaves the head and neck perfectly free, and which does not inter¬ 
fere with the wearing of a collar. 


m 



Fig. 339. —Oblique Circular Bandage of the Neck and Axilla, Showing a Slight 

Progression Upward and Downward. 

No. 21. Oblique Circular of Neck and Axilla; a 
Two Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the 
central portion of the axilla. It is useful to hold a dressing in 
place. If a more extensive bandage of the axilla is required, it 
will be found in No. 23. 




628 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


The bandage is started in the axilla, is carried obliquely up¬ 
ward across the back, over the opposite shoulder, and obliquely 
downward across the cliest to the starting-point. This anchors the 
bandage. Additional turns will make the bandage firmer, and they 
may be made to progress a little upward and downward in the 
axilla (Fig. 339), but if carried too far they tend to slip toward 
the center of the axilla. 

No. 22 . Complete Bandage of the Neck; a Two 
Inch Bandage. —This is a combination of the occipitofrontal, 
the anterior and posterior figure of eight of the head and neck, the 
circular of the neck, and the figure of eight of the neck and both 
axillse (Nos. 1, 16, 17, 18, and 20). If occasion requires, there 
may be added to these the figure of eight of the chest, both an¬ 
terior and posterior (No. 24). 

The area covered by this bandage is the occipitofrontal circle 
of the head, the back of the head, the circle of the neck, the tops of 
both shoulders and both axilla^, and possibly the upper portion 
of the chest both front and back. This bandage is used to keep a 
dressing in close apposition to the neck after an extensive dissection 
of the same. 

The head should be held in correct relation to the trunk. The 
bandage is started at the forehead, and is carried around the oc¬ 
cipitofrontal circle to the starting-point. This anchors the band¬ 
age. It is carried the second time around the same circle. A 
third turn is started, but when this reaches the ear it is carried 
across the occiput to the back of the neck, and is continued around 
the neck in the same direction, at least twice, each succeeding turn 
slightly overlapping the first one, so as to cause the bandage to 
progress from the center downward (Fig. 340). When the band- 
age next reaches the back of the neck it is carried upward across 
the occiput to tlie starting-point on the forehead. These three 
turns—the circle of the head, the figure of eight of the head and 
neck, and the circle of the neck—are again repeated, or twice, if 
necessarv. 

The bandage thus far applied serves to fix the head upon the 
neck, and to hold a dressing at the back of the neck. To complete 
this fixation and 1o hold a dressing farther forward on the side 
of the neck, the anterior figure of eight bandage of the head and 
neck (No. 17) should be applied. The vertical turns of this band- 



COMPLETE BANDAGE OF THE NECK 


629 


age should be placed both in front of and behind the ear, at least, 
on the affected side (Fig. 341). 

The next step in the application of this bandage is the fixation 
of the neck and trunk, and the covering of the lower part of the 
dressing. This is accomplished as follows: An additional bandage 



Fig. 340. —Complete Bandage of the Neck at an Early Stage. 


is anchored by starting it at the back of the neck and carrying it 
once or twice around the neck to the starting-point. The third turn 
is started, but when it is passed just beyond the top of the right 
shoulder it is carried under the arm from in front backward, is 
brought again to the top of the shoulder, and from there to the 
front of the neck. From there it is carried to the top of the left 
shoulder, and is passed under that arm from behind forward, and 
thence to the top of the shoulder and the back of the neck. This 
part of the bandage, which is a figure of eight of both axilla?, but 
a variation of bandage ISTo. 20, is repeated three or four times, as 





630 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


may be necessary. Figure 341 sliows the bandage in outline. 

The dressing has now been fixed at both sides; if it requires 
additional fixation in front and behind, this is to be accomplished 
by the addition of figure of eight turns of the front and back 



Fig. 341. Complete Bandage of the Neck Applied in Skeleton Form with a 
Narrow Bandage to Show the Various Turns. 

of the chest. Suppose the bandage to have reached the back of 
the neck, having just completed the figure of eight of the left 
axilla (Fig. 341). It is then carried across the back of the shoul¬ 
ders, beneath the right arm to the top of the right shoulder, across 
the back, beneath the left arm, and above the left shoulder to 
the starting-point. (Compare Fig. 345.) This figure of eight is 
repeated two or three times, as may be necessary. The bandage 
is carried under the arm from front to back, over the shoul¬ 
der, and to the front of the neck, under the left arm, from in 
front backward, over the left shoulder, and to the front of the 




COMPLETE BANDAGE OF THE AXILLA 


631 


neck. (Compare Fig. 344.) This figure of eight turn is repeated 
two or three times, as may be necessary, and the bandage is 
complete. 

If a soft bandage is employed, the intersections on the head 
should be stitched or pinned. If the bandage which is applied 
becomes rigid—for example, starch or plaster of Paris—it is a 
good plan to cut away, after the bandage has become dry, such 
portions of it as pass beneath the arms crossing in the axillae. 
This does not materially lessen the fixation of the head and neck, 
and it adds greatly to the patient’s comfort. If the bandage is 
a soft one, it may likewise be cut away and fastened to the chest, 
both in front of and behind each arm, by strips of adhesive 
plaster. 

In many cases it will not be necessary to fix the bandage of 
the neck to the chest on both sides and in front and behind. It 
was thought better, however, to describe the full bandage, and to 
leave to the ingenuity of the physician the omission of a portion 
of it, according to circumstances. 

No. 23. Complete Bandage of the Axilla; a Two 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the whole 
region of the axilla from the inner surface of the arm to the outer 
surface of the chest. According to circumstances, portions of the 
bandage may be omitted. It is of use to hold a dressing in the 
axilla. 

This bandage (Fig. 342) is composed of six parts: A, the 
spiral of the arm (No. 36) ; B , the ascending spica of the shoul¬ 
der (No. 34) ; C , the figure of eight of the neck and axilla (No. 
19) ; D , the oblique circular of the neck and axilla (No. 21) ; 
A, the descending spica (No. 35) of the opposite shoulder, and F , 
the descending spiral of the chest (No. 27). 

A. The bandage is started on the arm, near the shoulder, and 
is carried across the outer surface of the arm from before back¬ 
ward, and anchored by a circular turn. It is then carried spi¬ 
rally upward. 

B. As soon as the swelling of the shoulder interferes with the 
spiral, the bandage is carried over the shoulder, obliquely down¬ 
ward across the back, under the opposite arm, obliquely upward 
across the chest and over the shoulder and into the axilla. Two 
or three of these figure of eight turns are applied, each a little 


632 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


higher up on the affected shoulder, while exactly overlapping its 
predecessor under the opposite arm. 

C. The portion of the axilla nearer the chest is next covered 
in by a figure of eight of the axilla and neck. 





Fig. 342.—Complete Bandage of the Axilla, Composed of Six Parts: A, The 
Spiral of Arm, H , The Spica of the Shoulder; C , Figure of Eight of the 
Neck and Axilla; D, The Oblique Circular of Neck and Axilla; E, The 
Descending Spica of the Opposite Shoulder; and F, The Descendin' Spiral 
of the Chest. In the illustration the bandage employed is purposely too narrow, 
and the area is only partially covered in order that these different parts of the 
bandage may be the more readily recognized. 


7L The portion of the axilla next lower on the chest is then 
covered by oblique circular turns passing from the axilla ob¬ 
liquely upward across the back to the opposite side of the 

neck, and obliquely downward across the chest to reach the 
axilla again. 

E. The next lower portion of the axilla is covered by figure 
of eight turns of the bandage which cross on the opposite shoulder 





FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF NECK AND CHEST 


G33 


and pass under the opposite arm. This figure of eight is the de¬ 
scending spica of the opposite shoulder. 

F. The bandage may he carried still farther downward along 
the chest by a descending spiral of the chest. 

No. 24. Anterior Figure of Eight of Neck and 
Chest; a Two and One Half Inch Bandage. —The area cov¬ 
ered by this bandage is the neck, the front of the chest, and the 
circle of the chest below the arm. It is a combination of a circular 
bandage of the neck, a circular bandage of the chest, and a figure 
of eight connecting the two. The bandage is used to keep a 
dressing in place on the front of the chest. It has certain advan- 


Fig. 343. —Anterior Figure of Eight Bandage of the Neck and Chest, Showing 
the Horizontal Turn of the Chest, and the Completion of the F igure of 

Eight Turn. 

tages over the anterior figure of eight of the chest (Xso. 25) in that 
it does not confine the arms. 

The bandage is started at the front of the neck, and is carried 








634 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


around the neck in either direction—say to the left as it crosses 
the front of the neck, then backward to the right, and forward 
again to the starting-point. The bandage is then carried obliquely 
across the chest, under the left arm, across the back of the chest, 
under the right arm, and then horizontally once around the chest 
beneath both arms. When it reaches the front of the chest it is 
carried obliquely upward, over the left shoulder (Fig. 343), and 
so on around the hack of the neck to the starting-point. These 
horizontal and figure of eight turns are repeated three or four 
times until the bandage is sufficiently firm. It is well to fasten 
the oblique turns to the horizontal turns around the chest with 
safety pins, so that they shall not draw up against the anterior 
axillary folds. 

The posterior figure of eight of the neck and chest is exactly 
like the anterior bandage, excepting that it is started at the back 
of the neck and crosses the back of the chest instead of the front. 


BANDAGES OF THE TRUNK 

No. 25. Anterior Figure of Eight of Chest; a Two 
Inch or a Three Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this 
bandage is the upper portion of the front of the chest and two 
loops, one around each shoulder. It is of use to keep a dressing 
in place on the front of the chest. It is also used in combination 
with the bandage of the neck to hold in place the lower part of a 
dressing of the neck. It may also be combined with the spiral 
bandage of the chest. 

The bandage is started at the upper end of the sternum and 
•carried over either shoulder, say the right one. It is then carried 
under the right arm and back to the starting-point. This anchors 
the bandage. It is then carried over the left shoulder and under 
the left arm to the starting-point (Fig. 344). This completes 
the figure of eight. The bandage is carried over this course 
two or more times. The crossings on the chest may overlap a 
little to increase the area of the bandage either upward or 
downward. 

No. 26. Posterior Figure of Eight of Chest; a Two 
Inch or a Three Inch Bandage. — The area covered by this 
bandage is the upper portion of the back of the chest and the 


POSTERIOR FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF CHEST 635 


backs and fronts of both shoulders. It is of use to keep a dress¬ 
ing in place on the back of the chest or the back of the shoulder. 
It may be used in combination with the bandage of the neck 
(Ho. 22), to hold in place the lower part of the dressing of the 
neck. It may also be combined with the spiral bandage of the 
chest (Ho. 27). It is sometimes applied in plaster of Paris for 
fixation of the shoulders after fracture of the clavicle. 



Fig. 344. —Anterior Figure of Eight Bandage of Chest, Showing the Comple 

TION OF THE FIGURE OF ElGHT. 

The bandage is started at the base of the neck behind and is 
carried over the right shoulder. It is then carried under the right 
arm and across the back of the shoulder to the starting-point. 
This anchors the bandage. It is then carried over the left shoul¬ 
der, under the left arm, and across the back of the left shoulder 
to the starting-point (Fig. 345). This completes the figure of 





636 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 



eight. Two or three additional figure of eight turns complete the 
bandage. By overlapping these upon the back one can increase 
the area covered by the bandage either upward or downward. 


Fig, 345.—Posterior Figure of Eight Bandage of Chest, Showing the Com¬ 
pletion of the Figure of Eight. 

No. 27. Descending Spiral of Chest; a Three Inch 
or Four Inch Bandage. — 1 he area covered by this bandage is 
the complete area of the chest below the horizontal line which 
passes under both arms. It is of use to keep a dressing in place 
anywhere within this region. If it is necessary that the bandage 
should extend higher the spiral of the chest should be combined 
with the anterior or posterior figure of eight of the chest, or with 
both (Nos. 25 and 26). If it is necessary that the bandage should 
extend lower, the spiral of the chest should be combined with the 
descending spiral of the abdomen (No. 32). 




DESCENDING SPIRAL BANDAGE OF CHEST 


637 


The spiral of the chest may he an ascending or descending 
spiral. The latter will he described. The bandage is started a 
little above the center of the sternum, and is carried horizontally 
around the chest, just below the arms, to the starting-point. This 
anchors the bandage. A second turn exactly overlies the first. 
A third turn overlaps the second at its lower edge sufficiently so 
that when it is carried around to the sternum it shall be an inch 
lower down (Fig. 346). The fourth turn is parallel to the third, 



Fig. 346. —Descending Spiral Bandage of the Chest, Showing the Completion 

of the First Spiral Turn. 


the fifth to the fourth, and so on until the chest is covered (Fig. 
347). The bandage is completed by a circular turn. This band¬ 
age is liable to slip downward unless held in place by two shoulder- 
straps, stitched or pinned to all the turns of the bandage. 





638 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


Ascending Spiral of Chest.—The ascending spiral is similar, 

excepting that the bandage is started at the epigastrium, anchored 
by two horizontal turns, and carried spirally upward. 



I'ig. 347. Descending Spiral Bandage of the Chest Complete. 


No. 28. Spica of One Breast; a Three Inch Band- 

ihe area covered by this bandage is the circle of the lower 
j)oi tion of the chest, one breast, the hack of the shoulder on the 
same side, and the top of the opposite shoulder. It is of use to 

support and make pressure upon one breast, or to retain a dressing 
in position. 

Supposing the right breast is to be bandaged. The bandage 
is started over the lower portion of the sternum and carried hori¬ 
zontally across the left side of the chest, the back, the right side 
of the chest, and to the starting-point. This anchors the band- 
age. A second turn is carried directly over the first one until the 
right side of the chest is reached, it is then carried obliquely 
upward, slightly overlapping the lower margin of the right breast, 
over the left shoulder (Tig. 348), across the back of the right 














SPICA BANDAGE OF ONE BREAST 


639 


shoulder, under the right arm, and to the sternum, one inch above 
the starting-point. It is again carried horizontally around the 
chest parallel to the previous horizontal turn, and obliquely up¬ 
ward across the breast, an inch above the previous oblique turn. 
As the bandage passes over the left shoulder this overlapping 
should he reduced to half an inch or less, as the space here is 
limited. These alternating horizontal and oblique turns are con¬ 
tinued until the breast is both elevated and compressed (Fig. 349). 
The oblique turns should not he carried very much above the 



Fig. 348.— Spica Bandage of One Breast. The bandage is anchored and the first 

oblique turn is applied. 

nipple, but the horizontal turns should extend to the upper margin 
of the breast. A properly applied breast bandage should support 
the whole weight of the breast, thus relieving all strain upon its 







640 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


attachments. If circumstances render it desirable, the nipple can 
he allowed to protrude between the turns of the bandage, or a 
circular opening may he cut for it after the bandage is completed. 



Fig. 349 . Spica Bandage of One Breast Completed. 


No. 29. Spica of Both Breasts; a Three Inch Band¬ 
age-—The area covered by this bandage is the circle of the lower 
portion of the chest, both breasts, and the backs and tops of both 
shoulders. It is of use to support and make pressure upon both 
breasts or to retain a dressing in joosition. 

In bandaging one breast, the bandage should invariably be 
carried from the lower edge of the breast to the opposite shoulder. 
In this way the drag of the bandage is upward, and tends to lift 
the hi east with it. In bandaging both breasts with a single band¬ 
age, it is necessary to approach one breast in the opposite direc- 




SPICA BANDAGE OF BOTH BREASTS 


641 


tion. Hie latter should, of course, be the breast less affected. 
In the following description, the left breast is assumed to be more 
affected than the right. 

The bandage is started over the lower portion of the sternum 
and carried horizontally across the right side of the chest, the back, 
the left side of the chest, and to the starting-point. This anchors 
the bandage. A second turn is carried directly over the first one 
until the left side of the chest is reached. The bandage is then 
carried obliquely upward, slightly overlapping the lower margin 
of the left breast, over the right shoulder, across the back of the 



Fig. 350.— Spica Bandage of Both Breasts. Three oblique turns of both breasts 
are completed. The second breast to be bandaged should be lifted each time the 
bandage comes down across it to prevent a downward drag. 


left shoulder, under the left arm, and to the starting-point. It 
is then carried horizontally to the right side, across the back over 





642 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


the left shoulder, obliquely downward across the chest, slightly 
overlapping the lower margin of the right breast, which should 
be lifted as the bandage crosses it, so as to avoid a downward drag 
of the bandage. 

The bandage is next carried across the right side, across the 
back, across the left side, one inch above the previous turns, ob- 



Fig. 351.— Spica Bandage of Both Breasts. The oblique turns have been com¬ 
pleted, and the serpentine turns for compression are nearing completion. 

\ « • 

liquely upward across the left breast, over the left shoulder, across 

the left side, and horizontally around the chest one inch above 
the previous horizontal turn. When the bandage reaches the back, 
it is carried obliquely upward over the left shoulder, and obliquely 
downward over the right breast. These turns are continued until 
the bandage has passed three times over each shoulder (Fig. 350). 






VELPEAU’S BANDAGE 


643 


The overlapping on the shoulder should not exceed half an inch, 
as the space there is limited. When the bandage has reached this 
stage, both breasts will have been supported and compressed from 
below. The bandage should not be completed by four serpentine 
turns around the chest, the first one of which passes beneath the 
left breast and above the right breast 5 the second one above the left 
breast and beneath the right breast. The third follows the course 
of the first, but is placed nearer to the nipple of each breast, and 
the fourth follows the course of the second, but is placed nearer the 
nipple of each breast (Fig. 351). 

No. 30. Velpeau; a Figure of Eight of the Chest 
and Shoulder; a Two and One-Half Inch Bandage.— 
The area covered by this bandage is the whole chest below the 



Fig. 352 .—Velpeau’s Bandage. The first turn is nearly completed. Note that the 
bandage has been turned over in order to avoid twisting it under the arm. 

arms, one shoulder, and the whole of the corresponding arm, ex¬ 
cept the hand. It is of use to fix the arm firmly to the chest after 









644 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


fracture of the clavicle or scapula or after a dislocation of the 
shoulder has been reduced. 

The fingers of the arm to he bandaged should he placed above 
the opposite clavicle. Supposing the affected arm to be the right 
one, it is placed in the position indicated. The bandage is started 
at the angle of the left scapula and carried upward over the 
right shoulder, as far away from the neck as possible. It is then 
carried down the front of the shoulder to the outer side of the 
upper arm, beneath the elbow, and across the front of the chest 
(Fig. 352 ). Care should be taken not to twist the bandage. It 



Fig. 353.— Velpeau’s Bandage. Completion of one oblique and one circular turn, 

and beginning of second oblique turn. 

is then carried under the left arm to the starting-point. This 
anchors the bandage. A second turn is applied directly over the 
first, but when the left side is reached, the bandage is carried 
horizontally around the chest, and over the right elbow, thus 
fixing the arm to the chest. From the left side the bandage is 







DESAULT’S BANDAGE 


645 


carried obliquely upward across the back. As it passes over the 
right shoulder it should overlap the previous turn one-half inch in 
the direction of the neck (Fig. 353). These oblique and hori¬ 
zontal turns are continued alternately. Each horizontal turn 



Fig. 354. —Velpeau’s Bandage, Complete Except for Two Additional Hori¬ 
zontal Turns to Complete the Ascending Spiral. 

should overlap the preceding one by an inch. T our oblique turns 
over the shoulder will usually bring the bandage up close to the 
neck and down on the humerus to the point of the elbow. The 
horizontal portion of the bandage should then be continued spirally 
upward as far as the left arm will permit (Fig. 354). 

No. 31. Desault’s; Three Two and One-Half Inch 
Bandages.—The area covered by this bandage is the whole of the 
chest with one arm bandaged to it: the opposite axilla and both 
shoulders. In addition the hand is fixed in a sling. The use 
of this bandage is to fix the arm to the chest, to press the affected 
shoulder upward and backward, and to support the arm. It is 
used in cases of fracture of the clavicle. 









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prying the shoulder outward. 













DESAULT’S BANDAGE 


m 


Before the bandage is started, a wedge shaped pad or compress, 
with its base at least an inch in thickness, is placed base upward in 
the affected axilla; say the left one. The bandage is started in 
the center of the axillary pad, and is carried across the front of the 
chest, over the right shoulder, under the right arm, over the right 



Tig. 357. — Desault’s Bandage of the Chest and Arm. This shows the completion 
of the first loop of the third roller. It is a triangle of which the oblique sides are in 
front of the chest, and the vertical side behind. The second loop, yet to be ap¬ 
plied, is also a triangle, the oblique sides of which are at the back of the chest, and 
the vertical side in front. 

shoulder, and across the back of the chest to the starting-point. 
This anchors the bandage, and prevents the pad from slipping 
down. A descending spiral of the chest is then applied until the 
lower limit of the pad is reached. The bandage is then carried 
spirally upward until the whole pad is covered in. The figure 
of eight turn across the right shoulder and under the right axilla 
with which the bandage was started should now be repeated to 
give it greater firmness (Tig. 355). The affected left.arm is 







648 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


then brought closely to the side, and the forearm is flexed to a 
horizontal level. 

The second roller bandage is started over the sternum as high 
as the unaffected arm will permit, and is carried spirally down¬ 
ward around the chest until the elbow is reached (Fig. 356). The 
lower turns of this roller should he applied more firmly than the 
upper ones, as they are intended to press inward the elbow, and so 
to pry the shoulder outward upon the pad, which acts as a fulcrum. 

The third roller is started in the right axilla, carried across 
the front of the chest, over the left shoulder, down the back of the 





Fig. 358. Desault’s Bandage of the Chest and Arm. The third roller is used 
to elevate the arm by means of two loops passed under the elbow. This figure 
shows the completion of the second loop. 

left arm, under the left elbow and obliquely upward across the 
front of the chest to the starting-point (Fig. 357). This anchors 
the bandage, which is now directed backward instead of forward. 
It is then carried across the back of the chest, over the left shoul- 






DESCENDING SPIRAL BANDAGE OF ABDOMEN 


649 


der ? down the front of the left arm, under the left elbow, and 
obliquely across the hack to the starting-point in the right axilla 
(Fig. 358). These two loops around the affected arm and shoul¬ 
der are repeated three times for greater security. 

The addition of a sling completes the bandage. 

No. 32. Descending Spiral of Abdomen; a Three 
Inch Bandage. I he area covered by this bandage is the abdo¬ 
men and hack. It is of use to keep a dressing in place and to 



Fig. 359. —Descending Spiral Bandage of Abdomen, Showing Its Completion 

Below the Iliac Crests. 

prevent strain on a suture of the abdominal wall and also to pre¬ 
vent the escape of abdominal organs into the sac of an umbilical 
or a ventral hernia. This bandage may be a continuation of the 
descending spiral of the chest. 

The bandage is started at the epigastrium, and is carried hori¬ 
zontally twice around the trunk. This anchors the bandage. The 
third and succeeding turns are made to overlap one another down¬ 
ward, each for a distance of one inch. The bandage is completed 
















650 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


at the lower portion of the abdomen by a circular turn (Fig- 359). 
This bandage should extend below the iliac crests, as otherwise 
it has a tendency to slip upward. The individual turns should 
he held together by three vertical rows of stitches or narrow 
strips of adhesive. The bandage is more satisfactory when used 
upon men and stout women than it is upon women whose waists 

are very much smaller than their hips. 

Ascending Spiral of Abdomen.—An ascending spiral bandage 
of the abdomen is similar to this descending spiral. It is started 
below the iliac crests, anchored by two circular turns, and carried 
spirally upward. 

No. 33. Many Tailed Bandage of Abdomen ; a Band¬ 
age Made of Six or Eight Two Inch or Wider Strips, 
Each About One Yard Long. —The area covered by this band¬ 
age is the hack and abdomen. Its use is to keep a dressing upon 



Fig. 360.—Many Tailed Bandage Be¬ 
fore Its Application, Showing Its 
Construction. The lateral rows of 
stitching should not be placed farther 
forward than the posterior iliac spines. 



Fig. 361.—Many Tailed Bandage of 
the Abdomen. The tails are brought 
forward alternately, and each one 
holds the one before. 


















ASCENDING SPICA BANDAGE OF SHOULDER 


651 


an abdominal wound or to prevent strain of a sutured wound. If 
properly made, it is applicable to any abdomen, no matter how 
large or contracted. The bandage is made of strips of muslin or 
canton flannel, the width of which should vary from two to three 
inches, according to the size of the patient. Their length should 
be equal to one and one-third times the circumference of the body 
at the iliac crests. The strips are laid parallel on a table, each 
strip overlapping the adjacent one by two-thirds of its width, like 
clapboards on the side of a house. The strips are fixed in this 
relation by three rows of stitches; one across the center of the 
strips, and the other two from four to six inches to the right and 
left (Fig. 360). A sufficient number of strips should be used to 
give a bandage which will extend from the symphysis to the ensi- 
form cartilage. Six are usually sufficient. 

This bandage is applied by placing its center directly over 
the spine. It makes no difference whether the strips overlap 
upward or downward. The two tails of the strip nearest the 
body are crossed over the abdomen and drawn taut. The second 
tail holds the first. They should be directed slightly toward the 
opposite edge of the bandage (Fig. 361). The third tail is drawn 
across the second, and so on until all the tails are in place. The 
last one must be pinned. 


BANDAGES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY 

No. 34. Ascending Spica of Shoulder; a Two Inch 

Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the upper por¬ 
tion of the arm, the sides and outer portion of the shoulder, and 
the circle of the neck. It is of use to keep a dressing in place 
and also to make a shoulder-cap out of a plaster of Paris bandage. 

The bandage is started in the middle of the affected arm, and 
is carried around the arm in a circle. 1 his anchors the band¬ 
age, which is then carried spirally upward until the axillary 
folds are encountered.' The bandage is then carried over the 
outer portion of the shoulder, around the chest, undei the oppo¬ 
site arm, and back again to the shoulder, the descending portion 
of the bandage crossing the ascending exactly midway between 
the front and back of the affected shoulder. Another ciicular 
turn of the arm is made, and a second turn around the chest. 


652 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


This should be a half inch higher upon the shoulder than the 
preceding figure of eight turn, but on the opposite side of the 
chest it may exactly overlie the preceding one. Three or four addi- 



Fig. 362. —Ascending Spica Bandage of Shoulder Complete. 

tional figure of eight turns are made, without an intervening circu¬ 
lar turn around the arm (Fig. 362). This completes the bandage. 

No. 35. Descending Spica of Shoulder; a Two Inch 
Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage and its uses are the 
same as those of the preceding bandage. 

The spica bandage can be made to descend instead of ascend. 
After the arm is bandaged, the first figure of eight turn over the 
shoulder and around the chest is made at the extreme upper point 
of the area to be bandaged (Fig. 363). Each successive figure 
of eight turn is made a little lower on the affected shoulder. 

No. 36. Spiral of Arm; a Two Inch Bandage. —The 
area covered by this bandage is the upper arm from above the 
elbow to the shoulder. 










Fig. 363.—Descending Spica Bandage of the Shoulder, Showing the First 

Figure of Eight Turn. 










654 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


This bandage is used to keep a dressing in place on the upper 
arm, for instance after vaccination; and also to retain coaptation 
splints after fracture of the shaft of the humerus. 

It is anchored by a circular turn above the elbow and wound 
spirally upward (Fig. 364). 

No. 37. Concentric Figure of Eight of Elbow, or 
Testudo In versa; a Two Inch Bandage. —The area cov¬ 
ered by this bandage is the region of the elbow-joint. It may 
he applied when the joint is partially or fully flexed. It is 
used to keep a dressing in place or to make pressure upon the 
joint. 4 

The bandage is fixed by two circular turns-around the upper 
part of the forearm, and is then carried obliquely across the ante¬ 
rior surface of the joint and around the upper arm, making there 
a complete circular turn (Fig. 365). It is then brought down 
over the anterior surface of the joint, and carried around the 



Fig. 365. —The Concentric Figure of Eight Bandage of the Elbow, Showing 
the Completion of the First Figure of Eight Turn. 

forearm a little higher up than before. These figure of eight 
turns are repeated until the elbow is covered, each one being 
nearer to the point of the olecranon. 

No. 38. Eccentric Figure of Eight of the Elbow, or 
Testudo Reversa ; a Two Inch Bandage. —The area covered 
by this bandage is the region of the elbow-joint. It is applied when 







SPIRAL REVERSE BANDAGE OF FOREARM 


655 


the joint is partially or fully flexed. This bandage is used to keep 
a dressing in place or to limit the motion of the joint. 

The bandage is fixed by two circular turns directly around the 
elbow-joint, and passing- over the tip of the olecranon. As the 
third turn reaches the olecranon, it is carried slightly below the 
second turn, but exactly overlies it again at the front of the elbow. 



Fig. 366. —The Eccentric Figure of Eight Bandage of the Elbow, Showing 

the Completion of the Bandage. 

The fourth turn is carried slightly above the second at the olecra¬ 
non, but exactly overlies it at the front of the elbow. r l his proc¬ 
ess is repeated, each turn being farther and farther from the 
olecranon posteriorly until the elbow is covered (Tig- 366). 

If this bandage is applied to retain the arm in a flexed position, 
the outermost figure of eight turns should alternate with circular 
turns around the forearm and upper arm. In this manner a web 
is formed which will prevent the extension of the joint. This 
rigidity is much greater if a starch bandage is used. 

No. 39. Spiral Reverse of Forearm; a Two Inch 
Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the forearm from 
the wrist to the elbow. It is used to keep a dressing in place or to 
affix splints. 

The bandage is fixed by a circular turn at the wrist, and is 
carried spirally upward. After two or three turns, depending on 
the shape of the arm, a fulness of the lower edge of the bandage 





656 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


is noticeable. The bandage should then be reversed (Fig. 367) 
each time that it is brought to the front of the arm. The upper 
part of the forearm is often of uniform size, so that the upper por¬ 
tion of the bandage may be a simple spiral. The reverses should 
all be made in the same line, either posteriorly or anteriorly. 



Fig. 367. —Spiral Reverse Bandage of Forearm, Showing the First Reverse. 

No. 40. Figure of Eight of Forearm; a Two Inch 
Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the forearm from 
the wrist to the elbow. 

The bandage is fixed by a circular turn at the wrist, and is 
carried spirally upward. After two or three turns, depending on 
the shape of the arm, the lower edge of the bandage is looser than 
the upper. The spiral is then changed to a figure of eight. The 
bandage is carried upward to the elbow, and circularly around the 
forearm, just below this joint. It is then brought down to the 
point where the spiral was discontinued (Fig. 368). A circular 
turn is then made, and following this, another figure of eight turn 
is made to overlap the preceding by one-half the width of the 
bandage. A number of such figure of eight turns are made, and 








Fig. 368. —Figure of Eight Bandage of Forearm, Showing the Completion of 

the First Figure of Eight Turn. 



Fig. 369. —Figure of Eight Bandage of Forearm Completed. Hie pattern made 
by a spiral reverse bandage, when completed, is the same as this. 

657 











658 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


the covering of the forearm is completed by two or three circular 
turns (Fig. 369). The crossings of the figure of eight turns may 
be either upon the anterior or posterior surface of the forearm. 

No. 41. Figure of Eight of the Hand; a One and 
One-Half Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage 
is the wrist, the back of the hand, and the palm of the hand with 
the exception of a small portion at the base of the thumb. It is 
used to keep a dressing in place or to affix an anterior or posterior 
splint. 

The bandage is fixed by a circular turn at the wrist, and is 
carried across the back of the hand to the center of the first pha¬ 
lanx, or, if necessary, clear to the tips of the fingers. It is then 
carried circularly around the four fingers, and then spirally up¬ 
ward. As the hand is reached, the bandage is carried obliquely 
upward across the back of the hand to the wrist, around which 



Fig. 370. Figure of Eight Bandage of the Hand, Showing the Completion of 

the First Figure of Eight Turn. 

a circular turn is made (Fig. 370). The bandage is then carried 
obliquely downward across the back of the hand, and a circular 
turn is made around the hand to cover the triangular gap which 



SPIRAL REVERSE BANDAGE OF HAND 


659 



would otherwise be left bare. Additional figure of eight turns 
are then applied, each overlapping its predecessor upward by one- 
half the width of the bandage. The thumb should not be included 
in the bandage of the hand; if it is desired to cover it, separate 
turns for the purpose should he made. 

No. 42. Spiral Reverse of Hand; a One and One- 
Half Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the 
wrist, the back of the hand, and the palm of the hand with the 


Fig. 371.—Spiral Reverse Bandage of the Hand Showing Two Reverses. 

exception of a small portion at the base of the thumb. It is used 
to keep a dressing in place or to affix a posterior or anterior splint. 

The bandage is fixed by a circular turn at the wrist, and is 
carried across the back of the hand to the center of the first pha¬ 
lanx, or, if necessary, clear to the tips of the fingers; or it may be 
anchored by a turn around the fingers. In either case it is carried 
circularly around the four fingers and then spirally upward. As 
the hand is reached the bandage is reversed, in order to make it fit 
properly (Fig. 371). The thumb should not usually be included 
in the bandage. If it is desired to cover it, separate turns should 
be made for the purpose. 




660 


THE HOLLER BANDAGE 


No. 43. Spica of the Thumb; a One Inch Bandage. 

—The area covered by this bandage is the thumb, including the 
dorsal and palmar surfaces of its base, and the circle of the wrist. 
It is useful to keep a dressing in place, or to prevent motion in 
the joints of the thumb. 

The bandage is fixed by a circular turn at the wrist, and car¬ 
ried obliquely over the back of the thumb to the distal phalanx. 
The thumb is then covered by an ascending spiral bandage, and 
just before the web of the thumb is reached this is changed to a 
figure of eight bandage around the thumb and wrist (Fig. 372). 
The first figure of eight turn around the wrist should be followed 
by a circular turn for greater security, and the first figure of eight 
turn around the thumb should be followed by a circular turn to 
cover the triangular gap which would otherwise be left bare. Two 
additional figure of eight turns complete the bandage. The cross- 



Fig. 372. Spica Bandage of the Thumb, Showing Completion of the First 

Figure of Eight Turn. 

ings of the figure of eight turns may be placed more posteriorly 
or anteriorly, according to the portion of the thumb which it is 
desired to cover. If the bandage is used to fix the joints of 






SPIRAL REVERSE BANDAGE OF FINGER 


661 


the thumb, it is well to keep these crossings on the posterior 
surface. 

No. 44. Spiral Reverse of Finger ; a One Inch Band¬ 
age.—The area covered by this bandage is the finger. If it is 
desired to cover the end of the finger, this bandage should be com¬ 
bined with the recurrent bandage (No. 47). The bandage is use¬ 
ful to keep a dressing in place, or to prevent motion in the joints 



Fig. 373. —Spiral Reverse Bandage of the Finger, Showing the Second Re¬ 
verse. The middle finger of the other hand has been completely bandaged by 
the same method. 

of the finger. The finger can be bandaged by a simple spiral, but 
in most cases a better fitting bandage is obtained by using the 

spiral reverse, or figure of eight. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn around the ter¬ 
minal phalanx of the finger, and an ascending spiral started. Each 
time, as the bandage is carried upward over the back of the finger, 
it should be reversed (Fig. 373). When the base of the fingei is 
reached the bandage may be fastened, or it may be carried ovei 
the back of the hand and around the wrist in two figure of eight 

turns. 






662 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


No. 45. Figure of Eight of Finger; a One Inch Band¬ 
age. —The area covered by this bandage is the finger. If it is 
desired to cover the end of the finger this bandage should be com¬ 
bined with the recurrent (No. 47). The bandage is useful to keep 
a dressing in place, or to limit motion in the joints of the finger. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn around the ter¬ 
minal phalanx of the finger. It is then carried obliquely upward 
across the back of the finger to about the base of the second pha¬ 
lanx, around the finger at this level, and obliquely downward 
nearly to the starting-point (Fig. 374), making a figure of eight 
turn. A second and a third figure of eight should be applied, 
each one nearer the hand than the preceding. The lower per- 



Fig. 374. —Figure of Eight Bandage of Finger, Showing the Completion of 
the First Figure of Eight Turn. The completed bandage of the ring finger 
was applied by the same method. 


manent edge of each turn should be kept taut; the upper, loose 
edge is covered in by a subsequent turn. The bandage is finished 
with a circular turn around the base of the finger, or it may be 
carried across the back of the hand and around the wrist in figure 
of eight turns. 




THE GAUNTLET BANDAGE 


663 


No. 46. The Gauntlet, or Figure of Eight of the 
Fingers and Wrist; a One Inch Bandage. —The area covered 
by this bandage is that of one or more fingers, a corresponding 



Fig. 375.—The Gauntlet Bandage, Showing the Completion of the Bandage 
of One Finger. Note that the bandage is carried across the dorsum of the 
wrist from the ulnar to the radial side. 

portion of the hack of the hand, and the circle of the wrist. The 
bandage is useful to keep dressings in place on the fingers. 

The bandage is anchored by two circular turns around the 
wrist, crossing the dorsum of the wrist from the ulnar to the 
radial side. It is then carried across the back of the hand, and 
spirally around the finger to its tip. If the end of the finger is 
to be covered, the recurrent turns should be next made (No. Ii)* 
If the end of the finger is not to be covered, the finger itself is 
bandaged with spiral reverse or figure of eight turns from the tip 
of the finger up to the hand. A figure of eight turn is next car¬ 
ried across the back of the hand and around the wrist (Fig. 375). 
This may be repeated, if necessary, and an additional circular turn 
applied around the wrist before the bandage is carried to the next 
finger. In this manner one or more of the fingers and thumb ar.e 




664 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


bandaged, while the palm is left free; hence the name “ gauntlet ” 
has been applied to the bandage. 

% 

No. 47. The Recurrent of the Finger; a One and One- 
Half Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the 
finger, including its tip, a part of the back of the hand, and a 
circle of the wrist. This bandage is used to keep a dressing in 
place over the finger. Frequently two or more fingers are band¬ 
aged together. 

The bandage is started on the dorsum of the finger near its 
base, and is carried directly over the end of the finger, and nearly 
to its base on the palmar surface. It is then carried over the end 
of the finger back to the starting-point, overlapping the previous 
turn by about a third of its width. It is again carried over the 
end of the finger to the palmar surface, overlapping the previous 



Fig. 376 Recurrent Bandage of the Finger, Showing Its Application to 
the Forefinger. One half of the lateral excess of the bandage at the tip of the 
finger has been caught by the first figure of eight turn. 

• 

turn, in the opposite direction, by two-thirds of its width. Usually 
these three recurrent turns are sufficient to leave a lateral excess 
of bandage at the tip of the finger. This excess is smoothly band- 




ASCENDING SPICA BANDAGE OF ONE GROIN 


665 


aged in with figure of eight or spiral reverse turns (Figs. 376 
and 377), according to the directions given for bandages ISTos. 44 
and 45. When the base of the finger is reached, two figure of 



Fig. 377.—Recurrent Bandage of the Finger at a Later Stage. 

eight turns are carried across the back of the hand and around 
the wrist. 

I 

BANDAGES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY 

No. 48. Ascending Spica of One Groin; a Three Inch 

Bandage.—The area covered by this bandage is a circle of the 
trunk, the groin, the corresponding lower quadrant of the abdo¬ 
men, and the upper portion of the thigh. This bandage is useful 
to keep a dressing in place or to make pressure in the groin. 

The bandage is anchored by two circular turns around the 
upper part of the thigh, crossing the front of the thigh from within 
outward. It is then carried obliquely upward and outward to the 
crest of the ilium on the same side, once around the body, and 
across the back to the crest of the ilium on the opposite side. From 
there it is carried across the abdomen, as low down as the symphy- 





666 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


sis pubis, and back to the starting-point (Fig. 378). It is car¬ 
ried circularly around the thigh to cover the triangular gap which 
would otherwise be left bare. Additional figure of eight turns are 
then applied, each of which overlaps the previous figure of eight 
turn upward by one-third the width of the bandage. The line of 
intersection of these figure of eight turns should be a vertical one, 
and should cross the point where the greatest amount of pressure 
is needed. If the final descending turns of the figure of eight tend 



Fig. 378. Ascending Spica Bandage of one Groin, Showing the Completion of 
the F irst Figure of Fight Turn. Note that both the ascending and descend- 
Sig portions of the figure of eight are low down. Subsequent turns will overlap 
this one upward. 

to slip downward, they should each be pinned where they cross the 
vertical line referred to (Fig. 379). 

No. 49. Descending Spica of One Groin; a Three 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage and its uses 
are the same as those of the ascending spica of one groin (No. 48). 
The bandage is anchored around the iliac crest, and carried 






ASCENDING SPICA BANDAGE OF BOTH GROINS 


667 


obliquely downward across the upper part of the groin. It is then 
carried around the thigh and obliquely upward across the upper 
part of the groin, and once more around the body. Succeeding 



Fig. 379. —Ascending Spica Bandage of One Groin, Ready for Fastening. 


figure of eight turns are made to cross the groin, each a little lower 
down than the preceding one. In other words, the application of 
this bandage is the reverse of the application of the ascending spica 
of the groin described above. 

No. 50. Ascending Spica of Both Groins; a Three 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is a circle 
around the pelvis, the lower portion of the abdomen, both groins, 
and the upper portion of both thighs. This bandage is useful to 
keep dressings in place, or to make pressure in both groins. 

The bandage is anchored by two circular turns around the 
upper part of the left thigh, crossing the front of the thigh from 
within outward. It is then carried obliquely upward and outward 
to the crest of the ilium on the same side, once around the body, 









668 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


and across the back to the crest of the right ilium. From there 
it is carried across the right groin, one and one-half times around 
the right thigh, and upward just above the symphysis pubis to the 
crest of the left ilium. It is next carried across the back, and 
above the crest of the right ilium, over the symphysis pubis, and 



Fig. 3S0.—Ascending Spica Bandage of Both Groins, Showing the Double 

Figure of Eight Turn Almost Completed: 

downward across the left groin (Fig. 380). These various turns 
are repeated three or four times until the bandage is complete. 
Each figure of eight overlaps the previous one upward for a dis¬ 
tance equal to one-third of the width of the bandage. It will be 
noted that the bandage is carried obliquely upward across one 
groin from within outward, and obliquely downward across the 
other groin, from without inward. It is necessary to carry the 
bandage once around the trunk between these two turns, as other¬ 
wise the bandage will slip down the back. When the bandage is 
carried upward across the groin from without inward, it makes 
almost a complete circle of the trunk before it is carried down- 






ASCENDING SPICA BANDAGE OF THE BUTTOCK 


669 



Fig. 381. —Ascending Spica Bandage of the Buttock, Showing the Comple- 

TION OF THE FlRST FIGURE OF ElGHT TURN. 


ward and outward across the other groin; hence, it is not necessary 
to carry the bandage once around the trunk between these two 
turns, as it shows no tendency to slip down. 

No. 51. Descending Spica of Both Groins; a Three 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by the descending spica of 
both groins and its uses are similar to those of the ascending 
spica of both groins (No. 50). 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn around the iliac 
crests and carried downward in figure of eight turns alternately 
over the right and left groins, the lower figure of eight turn be¬ 
ing combined with circular turns around the thighs. (Compare 
No. 50.) 

No. 52. Ascending Spica of the Buttock; a Three 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the buttock, 
a circle around the trunk, and one around the thigh. It is useful 
to keep a dressing in place, or to make pressure upon the buttock. 







670 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


The bandage is anchored by two circular turns around the 
upper part of the thigh, crossing the back of the thigh from within 
outward. It is then carried obliquely across the buttock to the 
loin at the level of the crest of the ilium. It is then carried one 
and one-half times around the body, and obliquely downward 
across the buttock (Fig. 381). JSText a circular turn is made 
around the thigh, slightly above the preceding one, and a figure 
of eight turn around the body overlapping the previous figure of 
eight turn upward by one-third the width of the bandage. This is 
repeated until the buttock has been covered in (Fig. 382). The 
points of intersection of these figure of eight turns should all fall 
in a vertical line, and that vertical line should be situated where the 
greatest amount of pressure is required. This may be as far 
forward as the great trochanter, or nearly back to the median line. 



Fig. 382. Ascending Spica Bandage of the Buttock Completed. 


Descending Spica of the Buttock.—The descending spica of the 
buttock is similar to the above excepting that it is anchored around 
the waist and the figure of eight turns progress downward. 





CROSSED PERINEAL BANDAGE 


671 


No. 53. Crossed Perineal; a Three Inch Bandage.— 

The area covered by this bandage is the perineum, the upper por¬ 
tion of both thighs, and the lower portion of the trunk. It is 
useful to make pressure upon the perineum, or to hold a dressing 
in place. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn around the pelvis 
just beneath the crest of the ilia, crossing the back from the left 



Fig. 383.—Crossed Bandage of Perineum; First Figure of Eight Turn is 

Around the Left Thigh. 

side to the right. It is then carried across the right groin, diag¬ 
onally backward across the perineum, across the back of the left 
thigh, and upward over the left trochanter, and across the abdo¬ 
men from left to right (Fig. 383). It is then carried around 
the pelvis, crossing the back this time from right to left, and 
obliquely downward across the left groin, across the perineum, 
around the back of the right thigh and above the right trochanter, 
until the circle of the pelvis is again reached (Fig. 384). These 
turns may be repeated as many times as are necessary. 







672 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 



It will be observed that this bandage is made up of a series 
of figures of eight around one thigh and the pelvis, alternating 
with figures of eight around the other thigh and pelvis j and that 


Fig. 384. — Crossed Bandage of Perineum; Second Figure of Eight Turn is 

Around the Right Thigh. 

the direction in which the bandage is carried around the pelvis is 
changed each time the bandage goes around a thigh. 

No. 54. Spiral Reverse of Thigh ; a Three Inch Band¬ 
age. —The area covered by this bandage is the thigh. . In most 
persons the circumference of the thigh increases upward, so that 
a simple spiral will not fit accurately, and even the spiral reverse, 
though accurately applied, will not long remain in position when 
the patient is walking about. Tor this reason it is better to com¬ 
bine this bandage in most ambulant cases with the ascending spica 
of the groin (No. 48). This bandage is used to make pressure 
upon the thigh, or to hold a dressing in place. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn around the thigh 
just above the knee, and is carried spirally upward, each turn 






Fig. 385. Spiral, Reverse Bandage of Thigh, Showing the Introduction of 

the First Reverse. 



Fig. 386. —Spiral Reverse Bandage of Thigh Completed. 

673 














674 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


overlapping the preceding one by one-third of its width. As soon 
as it becomes evident that the upper edge of the bandage is tighter 
than the lower, the bandage should he reversed every time it is 
brought to the front of the thigh (Fig. 385). The bandage may 
be completed by a circular turn just below the groin (Fig. 386), or 
it may be continued in the form of a spica. In either case, slipping 
of the individual turns of the bandage may he prevented by two or 
three vertical strips of adhesive plaster, or by two or three vertical 
rows of stitches. This precaution is recommended in the case of 
all stout persons who are walking about, as otherwise the physician 
is likely to he embarrassed by the information that the bandage 
slipped down to the shoe within half an hour. 

No. 55. Concentric Figure of Eight of Knee, or Tes- 
tudo Inversa; a Two and One-Half Inch Bandage.— The 
area covered by this bandage is the region of the knee-joint. It 



^IG- 387. Concentric Figure of Eight Bandage of Knee. All the spiral turns are 
in place, and the first figure of eight is about to be completed. 

§ 

may he applied when the joint is extended or flexed. It is used 
to keep a dressing in place, or to make pressure upon the joint. 







ECCENTRIC FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF KNEE 675 


The bandage is fixed by a circular turn around the upper part 
of the leg, and is carried spirally upward until it almost reaches 
the patella. It is then carried obliquely across the posterior sur¬ 
face of the joint, and across the front of the thigh, high enough 
up to lie above the extreme upper limit of the synovial membrane 
of the joint. It is then carried around the thigh in one or more 



Fig. 388. —Concentric Figure of Eight Bandage of Knee, Complete. 


descending spiral turns, until it reaches nearly to the patella 
(Fig. 387). A series of figure of eight turns is next applied, each 
one nearer to the center of the patella, until the whole surface is 
covered. A circular turn over the patella completes the bandage. 
The crossings of these figure of eight turns are at the back of the 
leg, so that they do not show when the bandage is viewed from 
in front (Fig. 388). 

No. 56. Eccentric Figure of Eight of Knee, or Tes- 
tudo Reversa; a Two and One-Half Inch Bandage.- the 

area covered by this bandage is the region of the knee-joint. It 






676 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


is applied when the joint is either extended or flexed. It is used 
to keep a dressing in place, or to make pressure upon the joint, 
or to limit its motion. 

The bandage is fixed by two circular turns directly around the 
knee-joint. As the third turn reaches the patella, it is carried 
slightly above the second turn, hut exactly overlies it at the back 



Fig. 389. —Eccentric Figure of Eight Bandage of the Knee, Completed. 


of the knee. The fourth turn is carried slightly below the second 
at the patella, hut crosses it at the median line behind. This 
process is repeated, each figure of eight turn being farther and 
farther from the patella, until the joint is covered (Fig. 389). It 
will he found of advantage to interpose a circular turn between 
each figure of eight turn, as the outer limit of the joint is ap¬ 
proached, carrying these circular turns alternately around the leg 
and around the thigh. 

No. 57. Figure of Eight of Both Knees; a Two and 
One-Half Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is 
that of both knees. It is applied when the joints are extended, 






FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF LEG 677 

and is used to prevent flexion of tlie knees and abduction of the 
thighs; for example, after perineorrhaphy. 

A thick compress is laid between the knees, and bandaged to 
one of them by a few circular, turns around the leg and thigh. 
This anchors the bandage. It is then carried across the front of 
both knees, and spirally upward around both thighs to a short 
distance above the knees, and downward across the front of the 



Fig. 390.—Figure of Eight Bandage of Both Knees Completed. 

knees to the calves of the legs. From this lower limit the bandage 
is carried upward with spiral and figure of eight turns sufficient 
in number to entirely cover the knees (Fig. 390). Two vertical 
strips of adhesive plaster or two vertical rows of stitching will add 
to the stability of this bandage. 

No. 58. Figure of Eight of Leg; a Two and One-Half 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the leg 












678 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 



from the ankle to the knee. It is used to hold a dressing in place. 
If there is a tendency for the leg to swell, this bandage should be 

combined with the figure of eight 
of the ankle (Ho. 60). This com¬ 
bination is the usual bandage for 
ulcer of the leg, and is described 
in detail as Ho. 61. 

The bandage is anchored by a 
circular turn above the ankle, and 
is carried spirally upward until 
the lower margin becomes full, as 
it usually does after three spiral 
turns. Figure of eight turns are 
then made, each one reaching 
above the calf, and each one a lit¬ 
tle higher on the leg than its prede¬ 
cessor. The first figure of eight 
turn should be carried one and 
one-half times around the calf be¬ 
fore it is brought obliquely down¬ 
ward (Fig. 391). This will avoid 
any risk of its slipping. The in¬ 
tersections of the figure of eight 
turns should be properly placed 
in the median line. The bandage 
is completed by a circular turn 
around the calf. Its appearance 
is the same as that of Ho. 61, except that the ankle and foot are 
not covered (see Fig. 395). 

No. 59. Spiral Reverse of Leg ; a Two and One-Half 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is the leg 
from above the ankle to below the knee. It is used to hold a dress¬ 
ing in place and to reduce or prevent swelling of the leg. When 
used for the latter purpose, it should be combined with Ho. 60. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn just above the 
malleoli, and is carried spirally upward, each turn overlapping 
the previous one by one-third of its width. Except in very thin 
persons, it is necessary to begin reverses almost immediately. 
These should be made in the median line of the leg anteriorly 


Fig. 391.—Figure of Eight Band¬ 
age of the Leg, Showing the 
First Figure of Eight Turn. 
Note that the bandage is carried 
one and one-half times around 
the leg above the calf. 




FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF ANKLE 679 

(Fig. 392). Just before the maximum diameter of the calf is 
reached the re\ erses are discontinued, and the bandage is com- 



Fig. 392. —Spiral Reverse Bandage of the Leg, Showing Introduction of Re¬ 
verses Placed Exactly in the Median Line of the Leg. 


pleted by a simple spiral. The bandage should not extend high 
enough to interfere with flexion at the knee-joint. 

No. 60. Figure of Eight of Ankle; a Two Inch 
Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is a circle around 
the foot, the anterior portion of the ankle, and a circle of the leg 
immediately above it. It is used to keep a dressing in place, or to 
make pressure upon the ankle-joint, or to limit its motion. It is 
often combined with the spiral reverse of the leg (No. 59), and 
forms a part of the figure of eight of the foot and leg (No. 61). 

The bandage is fixed by a circular turn around the leg just 
above the malleoli. It is then carried obliquely downward over 
the anterior surface of the ankle and the dorsum of the foot, and 
around the ball of the foot, and back to the starting-point (Fig. 
393). A second time the bandage is carried around the foot, 








080 THE roller bandage 

and then two or three figure of eight turns are applied, each 
parallel to the preceding one, and slightly above it. A circular 
turn around the ankle completes the bandage. 


Fig. 393. —Figure of Eight Bandage of the Ankle, Showing the Completion 

of the First Figure of Eight Turn. 

No. 61. Figure of Eight of Foot and Leg; a Two 
and One-Half Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this band¬ 
age is the whole of the foot and leg, with the exception of the 
toes and the heel. It is the usual bandage employed for ulcers 
of the leg, and for other lesions below the knee in which a com¬ 
plete bandage is required in order to prevent swelling. If the 
heel is covered, the foot is much more clumsy, and as the heel 
does not swell much even in cases of general edema of the leg 
and foot, it is usually better not to include it in the bandage. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn carried around 
the base of the toes from the inner to the outer margin of the 
foot. Two or possibly three spiral turns are made around the 
foot, and then the bandage is carried around the ankle just above 









FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF FOOT AND LEG 681 



Fig. 395. —Figure of Eight Bandage of the Foot 
and Leg, Showing the Completion of the 
First Figure of Eight Turn of the Leg. 


Fig. 394. —Figure of Eight 
Bandage of the Foot and 
Leg, Showing the Band¬ 
age of the Foot Nearly 
Completed. 

a third figure of eight 
turn may he applied. 
Next the bandage is 
carried spirally up¬ 
ward from the ankle, 
until the increasing 
size of the leg makes 
the lower edge of the 
bandage loose. It is 
then carried obliquely 
upward, across the 
front of the leg, and 


the heel, and brought 
back over the dorsum 
of the foot, making a 
figure of eight turn 
(Fig. 394). Another 
circular turn is made 
around the foot, and a 
second figure of eight 
turn around the ankle, 
higher than the previ¬ 
ous one by one-third of 
the width of the band¬ 
age. If space permits, 












682 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


then once around the leg just below the knee. As the leg tapers 
from the calf toward the knee, the slack in the lower edge of the 
bandage is taken up, not only by the change in direction of the 
bandage, but also by the change in the shape of the leg. The band¬ 
age is next brought down across the front of the leg (Fig. 395), 
and a circular turn is made; and then a figure of eight turn which 
overlaps the preceding one by one-third the width of the bandage 
below, but which exactly overlies it as it passes around the leg 



Fig. 396. —Iigure of Eight Bandage of the Foot and Leg Completed. 

below the knee. A third figure of eight turn, with a circular turn 
at its upper and lower end, is also applied. After that the bandage 
is completed solely by figure of eight turns, and finished with a 
circular turn around the upper part of the leg. The upper margin 
of the bandage must not be high enough to interfere with flexion of 
the knee-joint (Fig. 396). 




ECCENTRIC FIGURE OF EIGHT BANDAGE OF HEEL 683 


A bandage of this character, properly applied, will remain in 
place indefinitely, and will give a firm, even pressure over the 
whole surface of the leg. 

No. 62. Eccentric Figure of Eight of Heel, or Tes- 
tudo Re versa ; a Two Inch Bandage. —The area covered 
by this bandage is the whole surface of the heel and the ankle. 



Fig. 397. —Eccentric Bandage of the Heel, Showing the Completion of the 

Fourth Turn. 

It is used to keep a dressing in place on the heel or to limit the 
motion of the ankle. For both purposes it is often combined 
with other bandages of the foot and leg. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn from the anterior 
surface of the ankle directly around the heel. • A second turn 
extends somewhat beyond the first one upward, where it passes 
over the heel, but crosses the first turn in the median line in 
front. The third turn extends beyond the first one downward at 
the heel, but crosses it in the median line in front. The fourth 
turn (Fig. 397) reaches still farther upward at the heel. These 
diverging figure of eight turns are continued until the whole heel 
is covered. Care must be taken not to pull too tightly the turns 
which cover the under surface of the heel, lest they be dragged 
45 








684 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


forward thereby. If this bandage is combined with a bandage 
of the foot and leg (No. 61), or with the figure of eight of the 
ankle (No. 60), it should he the first one applied, so that the 
other bandage shall partly cover it and protect its weak parts. 

No. 63. Modified Eccentric Figure of Eight of Heel; 
a Two Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is 
the whole surface of the heel and the ankle. It is used to 



Fig. 398. —Modified Eccentric Figure of Eight Bandage of the Heel, Shot/ 
ing the Completion of the First Lateral Binding Turn of the Heel. 


keep a dressing in place on the heel or to limit the motion of 
the ankle. It is a more stable bandage than No. 62,- and is less 
clumsy. It is often combined with other bandages of the foot 
and leg. 

The bandage is started on the front of the ankle and is an¬ 
chored by a circular turn directly around the heel. A second 
turn extends farther downward than the first turn, as it passes 
over the heel, hut crosses the first turn in the median line in 
front. The third turn extends farther upward than the first on 
the heel, but crosses it in the median line in front. A fourth 
turn is applied, divergent downward. Thus far this bandage is 
exactly like No. 62. A fifth turn is started more divergent than 




SPICA BANDAGE OF FOOT 


685 


the others, but when the bandage passes the posterior median line, 
above or below the heel, as the case may be, it is carried along the 
side of the heel and brought back to the starting-point without 
having encircled the ankle (Fig. 398). A similar loop is made 
around the heel from the other side, and one figure of eight turn 
of the foot and leg completes the bandage unless it is desired to 
add to it one of the other bandages of the foot and leg. These 
side turns hold the eccentric figure of eight turns firmly; further¬ 
more they aid in the covering of the heel, so that far less bandage 
is employed. These are points of superiority which have well- 
nigh rendered obsolete the eccentric figure of eight bandage of 
the heel (No. 62). 

No. 64. Spica of Foot; a Two Inch Bandage. —The 

area covered by this bandage is the whole surface of the foot 



Fig. 399.—Spica Bandage of Foot, Showing the Completion of the First Figure 

of Eight Turn Around the Heel. 

and ankle, with the exception of the under surface of the heel. It 

is useful to keep dressings in place. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn around the ankle. 
It is then brought over the dorsum of the foot and carried once 
around the base of the toes. The instep is co\ered in by tvo 












686 


THE ROLLER BANDAGE 


or three spiral or spiral reverse turns. The bandage is then car¬ 
ried across the hack of the heel, over the dorsum of the foot to 
the base of the toes (Fig. 309), making a figure of eight turn. 
Two or three additional figure of eight turns are applied, each 
one higher on the ankle, and farther back on the foot. The band¬ 
age is completed by a circular turn above the ankle. 

No. 65. Circular, or Spiral of Toe; a One Inch Band¬ 
age. —The area covered by this bandage is the surface of any 
toe, with the exception of its extremity. It is used to render 
the joints immobile or to keep a dressing in place. If it is de¬ 
sired to cover the end of one or more toes, the recurrent bandage 
should be employed. (Compare Ho. 47.) 

No. 66. Spica of the Great Toe; a One Inch Band¬ 
age. —The area covered by this bandage is that of the great toe, 
excepting its tip, and a portion of the foot. It is used to keep a 
dressing in place or to immobilize this toe. 



Fig. 400. Spica Bandage of the Great Toe, Showing the Completion of the 

First Figure of Eight Turn. • 

V 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn around the ball 
of the foot, and is then carried over the dorsum of the great toe 
to its terminal phalanx. Two spiral turns are applied to the toe, 




COMPLEX SPICA BANDAGE OF THE GREAT TOE 687 

and one or two figure of eight turns around the base of the toe 
and hall of the foot (Fig. 400), with intervening circular turns 
around the ball of the foot. 

No. 67. Complex Spica of the Great Toe; a One 
Inch Bandage. —The area covered by this bandage is that of 
the great toe, excepting its tip, a part of the dorsal and plantar 
surfaces of the foot, and a circle around the ankle. It is used to 



Fig. 401. —Complex Spica Bandage of the Great Toe, Showing the Completion 
of the First Complex Figure of Eight Turn. 

keep a dressing in place, or to immobilize the great toe. It is a 
more secure bandage than Xo. 66, especially in the case of per¬ 
sons with chubby feet. 

The bandage is anchored by a circular turn around the ankle, 
and is then brought spirally downward around the foot, crossing 
the dorsum from the inner to the outer side. It is then carried 
over the dorsum of the great toe to its terminal phalanx. Two 
spiral turns are applied to the toe, and the bandage is carried from 
the inner side of the base of the toe over the dorsum of the foot, 
and around the lower portion of the ankle (Fig. 401). As it 
is brought back to the toe the bandage is carried once around the 
foot, and then once around the toe. This complex figure of eight 









the roller bandage 


688 

turn, with a single up loop and a double down loop, is repeated 
once or twice to complete the bandage, which may also be com¬ 
bined with No. 66. 

No. 68. Recurrent Bandage of a Stump; a Three 
Inch Bandage, More or Less. —The area covered by this band¬ 
age is that of an amputation stump, together with a circle of the 
trunk, or of the upper portion of the limb. The bandage is used 
to keep a dressing in place or to make pressure upon the stump. 
This bandage is applied in accordance with the principles of the 
recurrent bandage of the finger, but because of the flabby nature 
of most stumps extra precautions are necessary to make the band¬ 
age firm. The bandage of the stump following amputation 
through the thigh is one of the most difficult to apply, as well as 
one of the most important. It will therefore be described. 

If a dressing is employed, it should not extend so far up 
the thigh as to prevent the bandage from coming in contact with 
the skin above it. The bandage is started on the anterior surface 
of the thigh, carried directly over the end of the stump and up 
the posterior surface of the thigh, folded directly downward, and 
carried again over the end of the stump to the starting-point. 
These and subsequent loose ends of the bandage must be held 
snugly in place by the thumb and fingers of one hand while the 
bandage is applied with the other. If the thickness of the stump 
is too great to permit this, the patient or an assistant must hold 
these ends on either the anterior or posterior surface. Addi¬ 
tional recurrent turns are now applied, each overlapping the pre¬ 
vious one by one-third of the width of the bandage. When the 
end of the stump has been covered and there is an excess of band¬ 
age at its margins, the bandage is wound around the stump in 
the form of a figure of eight, covering this excess first on one 
margin and then on the other. (Compare the Recurrent Bandage 
of the Finger, No. 47.) Next, a slowly ascending spiral is ap¬ 
plied, and completed at the upper end of the bandage with two 
or three circular turns, or with some figure of eight turns around 
the upper portion of the thigh and around the pelvis. (Cf. No. 
49.) The bandage is made even more firm by four vertical strips 
of adhesive plaster or by rows of stitching. If carefully made 
such a bandage can be removed, and if necessary reapplied as 
one piece. 


GAUZE BANDAGE 


689 


Gauze has almost supplanted muslin as a bandage material. 
It is less likely to slip out of place than muslin, but it does not 
give so firm a protection to a large stump as muslin does. In the 
case of smaller stumps, in which the end of the bone is not so well 
covered with muscular and fatty tissue as the bone in the thigh, 
it is important not to make the bandage too firm. A gauze bandage 
is perfectly satisfactory in such cases. As an extra precaution 
there should be a considerable pad of cotton or gauze over the end 
of the bone. 

In the still smaller stumps of the fingers, the bandage should 
not be made too bulky. The amount of dressing should be small, 
and the forward and backward turns reduced to three or five. 
Narrow strips of adhesive, extending the full length of the bandage 
in anteroposterior and lateral directions, will give it sufficient 
firmness. 


CHAPTER XXII 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 1 
GENERAL REMARKS 

Underlying ^Principles. —For practical purposes general or 
complete anesthesia is an induced sleep, brought about in large 
measure by the introduction into the system of mildly poisonous 
drugs, which benumb the sensations and cloud or obliterate con¬ 
sciousness. Some of the drugs employed are pronounced sleep 
producers, while others have a greater elfect in dulling the sensa¬ 
tions. There has been a long search for something which will 
obliterate the sensation of pain throughout the body while leaving 
the patient in full possession of his consciousness. A hypnotized 
person may he incapable of perceiving pain while retaining con¬ 
sciousness in other respects; hut the possibilities of such complete 
hypnosis are limited. The nearest practical approach to conscious¬ 
ness without pain is seen in spinal anesthesia. While the advan¬ 
tages of retained consciousness during some operations are self- 
evident, it is no less obvious that the obliteration of consciousness 
is often desirable. 

With the introduction of new forms of apparatus and of new 
ways of administering anesthetics, both singly and in combina¬ 
tion, the subject of anesthesia has become complex and not a little 
confusing to the beginner. There are, however, certain under¬ 
lying principles which must he observed no matter what the tech¬ 
nic, if success is to be achieved. Much has been written on the 
responsibility of the anesthetist. It is true that the patient’s life 
is placed in his hands. A similar situation exists at a wedding— 

1 The advantages of general anesthesia in the performance of many operations 
which are themselves of a minor character, make it desirable to include in this 
book a chapter on anesthesia. The subject is treated in a general way, in the 
hope that it may prove serviceable to all beginners in anesthesia, the need of in¬ 
struction in this field having been widely recognized in the past few years. 

690 





ANESTHESIA IN CHILDREN 


691 


not at a funeral. Let the ceremony of an operation suggest the 
joy of the former rather than the gloom of the latter. Flippancy 
on the part of the anesthetist is inexcusable, but a manifest delight 
in the performance of his task will both cheer the patient and 
inspire confidence, for a person usually does well what he takes 
pleasure and pride in doing. 

There is also much difference in opinion as to who should give 
an anesthetic; some advocating that a nurse should be fitted for 
this work, others holding that every graduate doctor should be 
sufficiently trained to give satisfaction as an anesthetist. Still 
others hold that anesthesia should be made a specialty and its prac¬ 
tice restricted by law to doctors with special qualifications for it. 
There is one rule, however, upon which nearly everyone will agree, 
and that is, that the person who gives the anesthetic should not be 
the one who performs the operation, however brief it may be. This 
rule, even though not a legal requirement, should be disregarded 
only in emergencies. 

Confidence. — The first step toward a successful anesthesia 
is to gain the confidence of the patient. Previous acquaint¬ 
ance may have established it, but usually the anesthetist is almost 
or quite a stranger. Under such circumstances minute details are 
of great moment. Personal neatness, familiarity with the appa¬ 
ratus, an unhesitating method of procedure, all produce an instan¬ 
taneous effect on the unusually alert mind of the patient. Just 
how the anesthetist is to impress his personality on the patient in 
the few minutes that are at his disposal—whether by earnest con¬ 
versation, by almost complete silence, by irrelevant remarks 
(“ jollying 77 ), by a hand clasp, or by some other way—each indi¬ 
vidual must decide for himself. In some manner this confidence 
must be gained if possible. 

Fear should be dispelled by the person and conversation of the 
anesthetist. The suggestion of an easy sleep or interesting dream 
will often favor the beginning of the anesthesia to an extent 
surprising to one who sees it tried for the first time. Such a 
speedy and quiet induction also lessens post-anesthetic nausea and 
vomiting. 

Anesthesia in Children. —With young children the ideal 
plan is to produce the anesthesia during a natural sleep. This can 
usually be accomplished with chloroform if the mask is held sev- 



692 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


eral inches away from the face and only a few drops are placed 
on it, and it is not brought nearer until the little patient has 
become accustomed to the odor of chloroform as shown by undis¬ 
turbed respiration. It may then be cautiously advanced and the 
amount of chloroform increased, but whenever the breathing is 
disturbed or the child moves the distance of the mask should be 
increased. In this way one can usually chloroform a sleeping 
child in five minutes. If the child is awake it is sometimes best 
to act promptly; otherwise it may grow more and more fright¬ 
ened until it becomes hysterical. 

There are several instances on record of deaths of children 
and adults at the beginning of anesthesia which were due un¬ 
questionably to fright. In some of them no anesthetic had been 
given. 

Bystanders. —The presence of a third person at the beginning 
of anesthesia is always desirable. The touch of a friend’s hand 
gives the patient comfort. But the third person, whether friend, 
nurse, or surgeon, should be quiet and never attempt to manage 
the proceedings—a function which belongs absolutely to the anes¬ 
thetist. 

Physical Examination.— The physical condition of the pa¬ 
tient should be ascertained, and if there is any weakness of heart, 
lungs, arteries, kidneys, etc., the anesthetist should know it. How¬ 
ever, organic lesions, unless extreme in degree, rarely interfere 
with the smooth progress of a properly given anesthetic. Their 
effect is seen in convalescence, especially if the operation is a pro¬ 
longed one. Hence the knowledge of the existence of such lesions 
should lead the anesthetist to make the anesthesia as light as pos¬ 
sible, while it is even more important for the surgeon to make the 
operation short and to minimize the operative trauma. 

Preparation. —Vo patient should be anesthetized with a stom¬ 
ach full of food. Vomiting, choking, and death may be the result. 
It has happened more than once. In case of emergency operations 
a full stomach should be washed out before the anesthetic is given. 
This should also be the rule hi cases of intestinal obstruction and 
peritonitis with vomiting. On the other hand, it is unnecessary to 
starv e a patient for a whole day previous to anesthesia, and it is a 
good plan to give six or eight ounces of water, or even coffee or 
tea, within three or four hours of the anesthetic. Milk should 


POSITION 


693 


never be allowed. It often coagulates in masses larger than any 
masses of solid food which might be swallowed. 

The clothing should be loose around the neck, chest, and abdo¬ 
men. This rule applies to surgical dressings and to the usual 
forms of clothing. The body should be well protected against 
undue loss of heat. 

Loose objects, including small plates of teeth, should be re¬ 
moved from the mouth. F ull plates cannot be swallowed, and they 
often aid breathing by keeping the lips and cheeks apart. If so, 
they should not be removed. 

Hose, lips, and chin should be lightly smeared with cold cream 
or oil. Eyes should be covered with a compress of gauze or a 

towel. 

One should always have at hand plenty of gauze cut and folded 
in the proper size and shape for use as swabs, and in the apparatus 
for anesthesia; two or three clean towels; a wedge for opening the 
jaws; a tongue forceps; a hypodermic syringe, and stimulants. 

Position. —An anesthetic should be given in a horizontal or 
semi-recumbent position. There is no objection to a pillow. In 
exceptional cases of cardiac or pulmonary disease the patient may 
breathe better when sitting bolt upright. In such a case the anes¬ 
thetic should be started in the position in which the patient is 
most comfortable. As unconsciousness develops the position may 
be gradually changed. 

The neck should not be unduly flexed, twisted, nor overex¬ 
tended, especially in stout persons; a slight change in the position 
of the head may seriously embarrass breathing, or equally relieve 
it if made in another direction. 

The arms of the patient should rest at his sides with the fore¬ 
arms either flexed or extended. In the latter position the thumbs 
may be slipped under the buttocks to prevent the arms from falling 
off of the table. It is dangerous to allow the arm to hang over the 
edge of the table. Pressure upon the musculo-spiral nerve in the 
middle of the humerus may cause a paralysis of the extensor mus¬ 
cles of the thumb and hand lasting some weeks. It is equally 
dangerous to draw the arm up over the head. As the muscles of 
the shoulder relax the head of the humerus sags down against the 
nerves coming from the brachial plexus, and an extensive paralysis 
in the arm and hand may result. 


694 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


Restraint. —No unnecessary weight should be placed on the 
chest or abdomen. The patient’s system is sufficiently taxed with¬ 
out raising with each inspiration the arm of an assistant carelessly 
resting on the patient’s chest. It is the duty of the anesthetist to 
call attention to this. If it is necessary to restrain the patient, 
pressure should not be made over the chest or abdomen. The fore¬ 
arms, the thighs just above the knees, and the forehead are the 
points where pressure is most serviceable. If a firmer control is 
needed the shoulders and hips may be held down. There are emer¬ 
gencies when the rule not to compress chest or abdomen must be 
temporarily broken. I once knew an anesthetist left alone with 
an alcoholic to sit astride the patient’s abdomen, hooking his own 
feet under the table, while with one hand he grasped the patient’s 
neck and the cone, and with the other poured on the ether. The 
patient’s arms and legs were flying furiously, hut he did not escape. 
But there is more credit in avoiding such an emergency than in 
meeting it. 

Should the patient be restrained as a matter of routine either by 
tying or by holding ? Opinions differ on this point. It is an econ¬ 
omy of labor to have a patient tied hand and foot to the operating 
table, especially if the anesthetist is an uncertain quantity; but it 
is not a high ideal to aim at. With plenty of assistants manual 
restraint is better, but a patient should not be held until there is 
need for it. Theoretically any rational adult patient can he so 
gently anesthetized that there will be no struggling. Practically 
this is not always the case, so that restraint is sometimes unavoid¬ 
able. It should never be rough, and only felt by the patient when 
he makes an effort to move. The feeling of being held may stir up 
the fight in an otherwise quiet patient. But the chief cause of 
struggling during anesthesia is a feeling of suffocation. The anes¬ 
thetic is crowded too fast or not enough air is allowed, so that the 
patient naturally fights for breath. Under these circumstances it 
is the anesthetist that needs to he held rather than the patient. A 
poor anesthesia gives a struggling patient. 

Place.— When circumstances permit, it is well to anesthetize 
the patient on the operating table. Delay in transportation and 
lifting of the patient are thereby avoided. There is also a distinct 
advantage in letting the patient while conscious arrange himself 
comfortably on the table where he is to lie for an hour or so. Pads 


INDUCTION 


695 


can be adjusted so that the hack will not be strained. This simple 
precaution may save the patient from lying awake all night with 
an aching back. In many cases timidity of the patient or the 
necessity of using a single operating room for several patients in 
succession makes it impracticable to anesthetize in the operating 
room. If the operating table is equipped with four- or six-inch 
wheels it can be easily pushed from room to room, so that the 
patient may be anesthetized upon it. 

Preliminary Medication. —There are certain distinct bene¬ 
fits obtained by the preliminary administration of a narcotic to a 
patient who is about to take an anesthetic. Fear, excitement, 
nervousness are lessened or dispelled. Unconsciousness is more 
easily produced. The patient is less sensitive to pain, and hence 
a lighter degree of anesthesia will be satisfactory. Less anes¬ 
thetic is employed. Excessive secretion of saliva and mucus is 
checked. Against the use of such drugs it may be urged that the 
pupillary reflex is somewhat interfered with; that they delay re¬ 
turn to consciousness, and hence protection from inhalation of 
fluids by normal swallowing is postponed; they increase the 
patient’s post-operative thirst; they do not directly decrease, 
and probably in some cases increase, post-operative nausea and 
vomiting. 

The wise plan seems to be, therefore, to reserve their employ¬ 
ment for nervous and excitable persons and for muscular and alco¬ 
holic persons, varying the dose according to the weight of the indi¬ 
vidual. Morphin (gr. £ to £) with atropin (gr. to y^o) given 
hypodermically one half hour before the anesthetic is probably the 
best combination, though some prefer scopolamin or hyoscin (grs. 
Yg- q- to tito) instead of atropin. One should not fall into the 
routine use of these or any other drugs. In a majority of in¬ 
stances a satisfactory anesthesia can be produced without their 
aid. They are poisons which have to be eliminated. I hey should 
be used only in special cases in which their benefits outweigh their 
disadvantages. 

Induction. —Every inhalation anesthesia should begin grad¬ 
ually, increase slowly, and continue without interruption until the 
patient is fully anesthetized. After that only so much of the anes¬ 
thetic should be given as is necessary to keep the patient just at 
the proper level. But the amount used, whether small or large, 



696 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


should be given continuously, or as nearly so as possible, in order 
to keep the patient steadily at the required level. Alternate heavy 
doses of the anesthetic, with intervals in which the anesthetic has 
to be removed altogether to permit the patient to come back to a 
safer condition, is the anesthesia of a tyro. It is like the begin¬ 
ner’s attempt to steer a bicycle. He swings first to the right and 
then to the left of the line he is trying to follow. It is well to let the 
patient try the apparatus before it contains any anesthetic. There 
should be no valves nor tubes so small as to hamper in the least 
degree an easy, full breathing. 

The first breaths of the anesthetic should be well diluted with 
air or oxygen. The immediate dangers of chloroform and ethyl 
chlorid are greatly increased by giving a concentrated vapor. Con¬ 
centrated ether vapor is most irritating, and even nitrous oxid 
should be thus diluted at first. 

Respiration. —Respiration should be free, but not forced or 
hurried. Primary anesthesia may be hastened by forced deep 
breathing; but unless one plans to stop the anesthetic as soon as 
primary anesthesia is obtained, such forced respiration is a dis¬ 
advantage. It is followed by a suspension of respiration in 
which the patient often regains a bewildered half-conscious¬ 
ness and refuses to permit the anesthetic to continue, so that 
force has to be used or else the patient allowed to regain full 
consciousness. I hen, too, there is danger in forced respiration 
that the patient will obtain too concentrated a vapor of the an¬ 
esthetic. 

As anesthesia progresses and self-control vanishes it is the an¬ 
esthetist’s duty to see that no harm comes to the patient. Ilis 
chief duty is to watch the respiration and see that it is not ham¬ 
pered by a bad position of the head, by tightly compressed lips, 
by a sagging backward of the jaw and tongue, by the accumulation 
of mucus or fluid in the throat, or by the arms of assistants or 
weights placed upon the neck or chest. The best position for the 
head is in the median line or turned slightly to one side. Some 
persons breathe better when the head is on a level with the shoul- 
deis and some when it is slightly raised. If the shoulders are 
raised on a sand bag in order to expose the neck for operation, a 
smaller bag or pad should be at hand to place under the head to 
avoid too great extension of the neck. 


SIGNS OF SURGICAL ANESTHESIA 


697 


Pulse. —Every anesthetist should practice until he is able to 
test the pulse in the carotid and temporal arteries as easily as in 
the radial. He can then form his own judgment of the heart’s 
action, and not have to ask a nurse or other bystander what the 
pulse is like. It is a mistake, however, to judge of the state of 
anesthesia solely by the pulse. It varies too much and too rapidly. 
Moreover, it almost always outlasts respiration, and may he fairly 
good when respiration has stopped altogether and the patient re¬ 
quires immediate attention. It is valuable as showing by its rapid¬ 
ity and weakness that excessive hemorrhage has taken place or that 
the operative trauma has been prolonged or severe. Under such 
circumstances the anesthetist may be able to give the operator 
warning in time to save the patient from more than he can bear. 
Intra-abdominal manipulation produces a shock which shows itself 
at once in rapid, feeble pulse and altered respiration. If the 
manipulation is stopped the symptoms are quickly relieved. In 
deep dissections of the neck or axilla, pressure or traction of the 
pneumogastric nerves and sympathetic ganglia may also give a 
weak and rapid pulse. 

Signs of Surgical Anesthesia. —The time required to pro¬ 
duce surgical anesthesia varies between less than two minutes in 
some cases in which gas or ethyl chlorid is used, to twenty minutes 
in difficult cases in which ether is used from the start. With such 
wide variations an average is meaningless. 

As anesthesia is produced respiration becomes deep and regu¬ 
lar. Nervous tension of the muscles, if such existed, disappears. 
The patient is unable to answer questions and gives no sign that 
they are heard, lleflexes to touch and pain are next lost. A good 
way to test these is by an attempt to raise the upper lid. The 
effort will be resisted by a patient not completely anesthetized. 
Some anesthetists make the stupid mistake of touching the eyeball 
or the margin of the eyelid with the finger to determine the pres¬ 
ence of the conjunctival reflex. When there are other reflexes eas¬ 
ily and safely obtainable there is no excuse for subjecting a patient 
to the risk of conjunctivitis. If chloroform or ether is dropped into 
the eye it should immediately be washed out with saline solution. 

If the patient resists raising of the upper lid more anesthetic 
is required. When the lid can be raised without resistance the 
reaction of the pupil to light may be observed. The size of the 


698 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


pupil varies with different anesthetics and different stages of anes¬ 
thesia. In general, it may be said that in the beginning of an 
anesthetic it is moderately contracted or dilated and reacts to light; 
that as anesthesia grows deeper the pupil dilates, but still reacts 
to light; and that as anesthesia reaches a dangerous degree the 
pupils are dilated and do not react to light. A preliminary dose 
of morphin contracts the pupils, and if it is a large dose they may 
react very little, even in light anesthesia. Atropin has the oppo¬ 
site effect of giving these an unnatural dilation, and it, too, may 
prevent their reaction to light. 

The anesthetic may stimulate secretion of saliva and mucus, 
compelling the patient to swallow frequently. When the reflexes are 

abolished swallowing ceases. 
Its absence is, therefore, one of 
the signs of surgical anesthesia. 

The pain reflex may he 
tested by lightly pinching the 
patient. The operator gives 
the best test when he puts the 
scalpel to the patient’s skin. 

The character of the respi¬ 
ration is in itself a most reli¬ 
able sign of the depth of anes¬ 
thesia. In a perfect surgical 
anesthesia it is deep and regm 
lar, like a person in a heavy 
sleep after hard work or a 
period of excitement. If the 
anesthesia becomes too. light, 
the patient will sigh or respi¬ 
rations will become irregular. 
If anesthesia becomes too deep, 

respiration becomes snoring 
Fig. 402.— Wooden Wedge for Prying , e i 

open the Jaw. Front and side views. ancl ali milSCleS of the 

throat are absolutely flabby 
and without tone, or respiration may become rapid and shallow, or 
respiration may cease entirely. I believe that a good observer with 
experience in the art might be blindfolded and yet give a satisfac¬ 
tory anesthesia, being guided simply by the sound of the respiration. 










DISPLACED JAW 


699 


COMPLICATIONS DURING ANESTHESIA 

Compressed Dips. —Compression of the lips is easily over¬ 
come by passing a huger between them. If a patient has no 
teeth the jaws may close so far that even relaxed lips become an 
obstruction to respiration. 

Displaced Jaw. —Sagging backward of the jaw and tongue 
can be overcome by lifting the jaw forward, in this manner: First 
depress the chin to unlock the teeth if they are in contact. Then 
lift the jaw forward by pressing one or both thumbs under its 



Fig. 403.—Two Types of Mouth Gag. B is wedge-shaped and can be used to pry 
open the jaw. The mouth must be partly open before A can be inserted. It 
stays in place better than B in most cases. 

angles, the middle huger resting on the bridge of the nose. When 
it is forward press it upward so that the teeth may interlock. \ ei} 
little pressure is then required to keep it in place, and if the 
patient’s head is turned slightly to one side, the jaw will prob¬ 
ably remain in good position without being held. 1 his technic 
is easily carried out on a patient fully anesthetized. If the 







700 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


muscles are rigid it is much more difficult. It is then usually 
necessary to pry the teeth apart with a wedge, blunt clamp, or 
other instrument, and seize and draw forward the tongue. A 
wooden wedge is the best instrument for prying open the mouth 
(Fig. 402). It is less likely to break the teeth than a metal in¬ 
strument. As soon as free respiration is reestablished and mus¬ 
cular spasm subsides, the maneuver above mentioned for bringing 
the jaw forward can be carried out. Figure 403 shows two styles 
of gag for keeping the jaws apart. They require attention to see 
that they do not slip off the teeth, especially if the patient has lost 
one or more molar teeth. 

Tongue. —The tongue can he seized with a gauze compress, 
or pierced with a needle and thread, or pierced with a tongue for¬ 
ceps made like a needle and flat ring. These things can do no 
serious injury. Forceps which hold by compression, or worse still, 
an artery clamp, may in the excitement of the moment be so firmly 
applied as to nip a piece out of the tongue. In cases proved to 
be difficult it is well to pass a thread through the tongue in order 
to avoid repeated attacks of suffocation. Of course, no professional 
anesthetist will admit the necessity of such a measure. Still, a 
tongue forceps should always be at hand. 

Excitement. —It was formerly customary to speak of a stage 
of excitement through which a patient passed to reach the stage 
of surgical anesthesia. Now that anesthetics are chemically purer, 
excitement is no longer the rule, and is to be classed rather as a 
complication. Probably not one person in a hundred laughs when 
taking “ laughing gas,” as nitrous oxid used to be called. So, too, 
when the other anesthetics are properly given excitement is rare, 
being chiefly seen in alcoholics. 

The first cause for excitement is a feeling of suffocation due to 
a too concentrated vapor. The remedy is a breath or two of fresh 
air, followed by a more gradual administration of the anesthetic, 
unless one wishes to assume the responsibility of restraining a 
struggling patient and compelling him to breathe a dangerously 
concentrated vapor. But even though the anesthesia is given prop¬ 
erly, in a certain number of cases excitement occurs. These pa¬ 
tients, as has already been stated, are chiefly alcoholics, and espe¬ 
cially well-developed men, accustomed to give their muscles full 
play—athletes, longshoremen, etc. With these patients a prelimi- 



VOMITING 


701 


nary dose of morphin is of the greatest assistance. If this or some 
similar drug is not given, it is necessary to restrain the patient 
and to keep constantly crowding the anesthetic upon him until 
he succumbs. This should never he done when his respiration is 
impeded in any way. As narcosis deepens the excitement passes 
off, active profanity subsiding to some half-articulate words rap¬ 
idly repeated. The anesthetist then freshens or changes the cone 
into which the patient has been violently spitting, and settles him¬ 
self for the period of surgical anesthesia. Such a patient should he 
watched with the greatest care, so that he may not repeat the 
fight, and the temptation is strong to “ soak it to him ” to such 
an extent that he cannot possibly revive until long after he has 
been placed in bed. Such action is a confession of unskillfulness 
on the part of the anesthetist to which no one who has a real pride 
in his work will resort. 

Saliva in the Pharynx. —As anesthesia deepens, swallow¬ 
ing becomes imperfect or ceases, and saliva collects in the pharynx. 
The amount differs in different persons, with different anesthetics 
and with different anesthetists. If the secretion interferes with 
respiration it should be removed. A good instrument for the 
purpose is a curved clamp seven inches long, holding a gauze swab 
not larger than the finger. If the patient’s head is kept turned 
to one side the saliva will accumulate in the pouch of the lower 
cheek, from which place it is easily removed; or it may be drained 
out by a strip of gauze. To clear the pharynx, however, it is neces¬ 
sary to separate the jaws with a mouth gag and then to pass the 
sponge clamp well back over the curve of the tongue. The saliva 
should be swept to one side and dragged out along the cheek. In 
this way a much greater quantity can be extracted than by simply 
passing the swab in and out. 

By a laboratory suction pump connected with a two-necked 
bottle, it is possible to suck all blood and saliva from the pharynx 
(Fig. 404). This device, long used by dentists, has recently been 
employed for tonsillectomy and other operations on the throat with 
complete success. 

Vomiting. —Vomiting in anesthesia is usually a sign of re¬ 
turning consciousness or the resumption of activity by a set of 
benumbed reflexes. ITence it almost always occurs as the patient 
passes from a deeper state of anesthesia to a lighter one. It not 


702 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


infrequently takes place from this same cause in the beginning 
of an anesthesia if the administration is an uneven one. There 
are occasionally met cases in which vomiting is induced by the 
first smell of the anesthetic; hut they are very rare, and the anes¬ 
thetist will find that as his skill increases he will rarely see vomit¬ 
ing before the end of an anesthesia. If the vomited matter is small 



Fig. 404. —Suction Apparatus to Keep the Throat Free from Blood and 
Saliva. A, Laboratory pump for attachment to faucet; B, stiff rubber tube 
(i-inch lead pipe may be used); C, bottle to receive the blood; D, ordinary rubber 
tubing to connect with E, soft rubber catheters, which are passed through the nos¬ 
trils to the pharynx; F, hard rubber or metallic tube for use in the mouth. 

in amount and of a fluid nature—that is, a mixture of water, 
saliva, mucus, gastric juice, and bile—the head should he turned 
to one side and the fluid wiped away from the mouth as the patient 
expels it. The active reflexes in the throat will prevent the fluid 
from being drawn into the trachea. If blood-clots or solid food 
are vomited, the danger of choking is greater. In such a case the 
















MUSCULAR SPASMS 


703 


anesthetist should he on the watch to clear the patient’s throat by 
a clamped sponge or his finger; or it may be necessary to invert 
the patient to clear his throat and enable him to breathe freely 
again. This is a very good practice with a child, whose light 
weight enables one to draw him quickly over the head of the oper¬ 
ating table and to support him in a vertical inverted position for a 
half minute or until normal respiration is restored. 

Such accidents delay the anesthesia, since their careful treat¬ 
ment may bring the patient nearly hack to complete consciousness. 
But it is always the safe rule to restore free respiration before giv¬ 
ing any more of the anesthetic. The practice, far too common, of 
looking on vomiting merely as an indication for crowding the anes¬ 
thetic is unwise and dangerous. 

There is also a vomiting which precedes death on the table, 
and which is more a pouring out of stomach contents through re¬ 
laxed passages than it is a true vomiting. Inversion is an excellent 
practice in these cases, as this position clears the throat, while the 
added flow of blood to the brain may stimulate respiratory move¬ 
ments. Artificial respiration should then he carried out for some 
minutes. 

Muscular Spasms.— The muscles may undergo tonic or clonic 
contractions during anesthesia. A patient with jaws set and mus¬ 
cles of the throat firmly contracted, making violent respiratory 
movements, hut getting no air into his trachea, and hence growing 
blacker every second, is in a dangerous condition and requires im¬ 
mediate attention. The apparatus should invariably he removed, 
so that the patient’s first breath may he pure air. The jaws should 
then he pried apart and the tongue brought forward. With a deep 
sigh the air rushes into the trachea, cyanosis disappears with two 
or three breaths, and muscular spasm subsides. Possibly saliva or 
mucus may need to be wiped from the throat. The anesthesia 
should he resumed as soon as respiration is free and deep cyanosis 
is gone—that is, usually after two or three full breaths have 
been taken. Care should be exercised to give a less concen¬ 
trated vapor, as neglect of this precaution caused the muscular 

spasm. 

Clonic muscular spasms, especially of the lower extremities, 
seen for the most part in alcoholics, are not dangerous, hut most 
annoying to the surgeon and hence to the anesthetist. A change 



704 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


in the position of the patient’s body may stop the spasms, but 
usually it is necessary to change the anesthetic or to push the anes¬ 
thesia to a deeper stage. 

Cyanosis. —Cyanosis due to saliva in the pharynx and larynx, 
and due to muscular spasm in the throat, is spoken of above. It 
also occurs in too deep narcosis without any obstruction. The 
point at which cyanosis becomes dangerous is different in different 
cases. Nitrous oxid especially, when administered without ad¬ 
mixture of air, may give a deep cyanosis. To a less extent this 
is true of ether when given by the closed method—that is, when 
the patient rebreathes expired air from a bag. Cyanosis occurring 
without rebreathing is more significant than when some closed 
form of apparatus is employed. Naturally cyanosis occurring in 
a prolonged anesthesia is more serious than cyanosis in a short 
or primary anesthesia; but no matter what the anesthetic or 
method employed, extreme cyanosis is always dangerous and an 
indication for more air and less anesthetic. The change can be 
made gradually in most cases, but unless the anesthetist is expe¬ 
rienced it is well to take no chances, but to give the patient at 
once two or three full breaths of pure air before continuing the 
anesthesia. 

Cessation of Respiration. —Sometimes a patient stops 
breathing, though there is no obstruction to the respiration. This 
may be due to some form of shock arising from extreme operative 
trauma, hemorrhage, prolonged anesthesia, or too concentrated 
anesthetic vapor. There are, however, some patients who simply 
stop breathing, although no one of these causes seems present. 
The anesthetic seems to abolish the respiratory reflex. Cessation 
of respiration in this form is evident early in the anesthesia. It 
can usually be overcome by slapping the patient’s chest, or by com¬ 
pression of chest and abdomen to force out inspired air. If breath¬ 
ing is not at once resumed the tongue should be drawn forward, 
rhythmically pulled and relaxed, and artificial respiration resorted 
to. Inversion or a reverse inclined position (Trendelenburg posi¬ 
tion) is also helpful. 

Instances are recorded in which alternately inverting a patient 
and then holding him upright has overcome cessation of both res- 
pii ation and pulse from chloroform. That these extreme changes 
in position have a powerful action to promote the flow of blood 


CESSATION OF RESPIRATION 


705 


through the heart and vessels is evident from the changes in color 
that they produce on a conscious person so treated. 

’ Ammonia held near the nostrils will powerfully stimulate a 
sluggish respiration. So marked is its action that if chloroform 
has to be given to a feeble person in an emergency, and suitable 
apparatus is not at hand, it is a good plan to remove the cork from 
a bottle of smelling salts, put a 



gauze sponge in its neck, and 
drop the chloroform upon it. 

The bottle then acts as a holder 
and the gauze can be brought 
near to the patient’s lips with¬ 
out touching them, while a 
mixture of perfumed ammonia, 
chloroform, and air is inhaled 
(Fig. 405). 

Briskly rubbing the lips, 
pinching the skin, or pressing 
on a sensory nerve, such as the 
supraorbital, are other means 
of stimulation easily employed 
by the anesthetist, while dila¬ 
tation of the sphincter ani is a Fig. 405. — Chloroform may be Adminis- 

very powerful respiratory stim- terel on Gauze in the Neck of a 
. i-ii Bottle of Smelling Salts. 

ulant, which he may request 

the surgeon to employ in case of necessity. When the patient 
breathes regularly the anesthesia may be resumed. If respi¬ 
ration again ceases it is well to change the anesthetic. Some 
patients, after one or two respiratory failures, will breathe regu¬ 
larly through the whole operation. Others give so much trouble 
that the operation has to be hurried or given up entirely. 

Cessation of respiration from one of the forms of shock is, of 
course, much more difficult to overcome. It is not enough to start 
the patient breathing; the underlying cause of failure must be 
properly handled. Any operative trauma such as rough handling 
and pulling of intestine should be at once discontinued. The 
effects of loss of blood can be temporarily overcome by a reversed 
position of the patient, by bandaging the extremities from their 
tips toward the body, by a large abdominal dressing tightly ban- 








706 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


daged, by the injection of a large quantity of hot saline per rec¬ 
tum, or by hypodermocylsis or transfusion. The technic of these 
measures is given elsewhere. While they cannot be carried out 
by the anesthetist, it is his duty to report the state of the patient 
to the surgeon and to suggest the remedy which is best suited to 
the condition of the patient and of the operating room. Any 
reasonable surgeon will welcome practical suggestions of this sort, 
especially if they can be carried out without interfering with his 
own work. 

A saline enema, even though given on the table, should in case 
of shock be repeated every few hours until the patient’s condition 
is satisfactory. 

Shock due to prolonged or too concentrated anesthesia ought 
not to occur. If it does, the anesthetist has the remedy in his own 
hands. If oxygen is available it should be given with the anes¬ 
thetic. If not, it is safe to allow the patient who breathes badly 
as a result of shock to regain a partial consciousness, and there¬ 
after to keep the stage of anesthesia so light that reflexes are not 
entirely abolished. Here again a reasonable surgeon will not 
object to a little restlessness on the part of the patient if he under¬ 
stands that it is intentional and chosen by the anesthetist to avoid 
a more dangerous condition. 

Irregular Heart Action —It is a disputed question whether 
the heart ever stops in anesthesia while respiration continues. If 
it does it is the exceptional, not the usual order. It often becomes 
feeble and rapid while respiration is not greatly changed. The 
pulse is a more sensitive index of shock than is the respiration. 
Its tendency to become feeble, rapid, or irregular gives the anes¬ 
thetist an early warning to lighten the anesthesia as much as pos¬ 
sible and to be ready with such stimulating measures as he thinks 
are indicated. 

The hypodermic injection of drugs to stimulate the heart’s 
action is far less efficacious than the general measures enumerated 
above. But it is a means easy to use and a syringe should al¬ 
ways be at hand. Digitalin (gr. strychnin sulphate (gr. 

jnr)> or a ^ ew drops of adrenalin chlorid solution are the best 
drugs of this class. Their absorption in shock is slow, so that 
some time must elapse before their maximum effect is shown. 
This should be borne in mind in determining a second injection. 


RECOVERY FROM ANESTHESIA 


707 


Amyl nitrite and nitroglycerin are contraindicated, since they 
dilate the vessels. 

Oxygen in Anesthesia. —One of the most useful controls of 
anesthesia is pure oxygen gas. Its use in anesthetic mixtures is 
spoken of elsewhere. Its use to meet anesthetic dangers is also 
most important. It will dissipate cyanosis more quickly than air. 
It will distinctly improve pulse and respiration in shock. If given 
after the anesthetic has been stopped, it hastens the return of con¬ 
sciousness. Whenever possible, a can or cylinder of oxygen should 
stand beside the anesthetist. As occasion arises he can then in¬ 
troduce the soft-rubber tube beneath the mask and from time to 
time give a little oxygen as he sees signs of respiratory or cardiac 
failure. In this manner serious symptoms can often be avoided. 

POST-ANESTHETIC CONDITIONS 

Recovery from Anesthesia. —The longer the duration of 
anesthesia the less anesthetic will be required per minute. This 
is chiefly due to the fact that during inhalation the anesthetic 
accumulates in the blood and tissues of the body. Therefore, a 
constantly diminishing quantity needs to be inhaled to keep the 
blood saturated. 

If an anesthetic is skillfully given the patient’s reflexes will 
act almost as soon as the operator finishes his work. Even a little 
restlessness during the suturing is no serious disadvantage, and 
it shows that the patient will make a prompt recovery. 

Elimination of the anesthetic is chiefly through the lungs, so 
that as soon as the patient is placed in bed he should be given a 
good supply of fresh cool air, though protected from a direct 
draught. This is the more important if the operation has been 
performed in the patient’s room. A horizontal position on the 
back with no pillow or a very thin one, is the position of perfect 
rest for most patients. But if the character of the operation does 
not forbid motion, it is well to let the patient choose his own 
position when conscious. 

Return to consciousness may be hastened by inhalation of oxy¬ 
gen. Its use is beneficial if there is much shock. Many anes¬ 
thetists apply hot wet towels to the face for a few minutes to 
stimulate respiration and hasten elimination of the anesthetic. 


708 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


The ammonia fumes in a bottle of smelling salts are a powerful 
stimulant to respiration. 

It should not be assumed that a respiratory stimulant is always 
indicated. If the patient is returned to bed with a good pulse 
and quiet, deep breathing, there is no object in hastening the 
return to consciousness. On the contrary, after an hour’s sleep 
the patient will awake to much less discomfort than if suddenly 
revived. 

The anesthetist should always remain with the patient until 
the reflexes are well established. In most cases if the anesthetic 
has been skillfully given, the reflexes are active by the time the 
patient is put to bed, so that this rule does not entail much loss 
of time. If circumstances permit, it is advisable for him to re¬ 
main longer—until consciousness has fully returned. lie will 
then be able to see the degree of shock, the amount and character 
of nausea and vomiting, the rapidity of returning consciousness, 
and other facts which will be of great value to him in perfecting 
his anesthetic technic. Before leaving he should tell the person 
who is left in charge of the patient exactly what conditions to 
expect and what to do when they arise. 

Nausea with Vomiting. —The most disagreeable feature of 
complete anesthesia is the nausea with vomiting which so often 
follows it. Perhaps one should except the feeling of suffocation 
at the beginning of an anesthetic, but this only exists when the 
technic is blundering. It is entirely avoidable; not so the nausea. 
Skill in administration will greatly lessen it, but no method has 
yet been found to avoid it altogether. Idle desire to do so has 
been the chief reason for trying new anesthetics, and new com¬ 
binations of the old ones. 

It is well to keep in mind a few facts concerning this nausea. 
Individuals differ as much in regard to it as they do in regard 
to seasickness, and it is as impossible to predict their suscepti¬ 
bility in one case as in the other. This much is certain, however, 
that with a given individual the possibility of post-anesthetic 
nausea and vomiting is increased if an anesthetic is given when 
the stomach is full of food. It is also increased if a large amount 
of the anesthetic is given, or if it is given in a concentrated vapor, 
and most markedly if it is given irregularly, so that periods of con¬ 
centrated vapor alternate with periods of almost pure air. It also 



SHOCK 


709 


seems probable that rebreathing tends to produce nausea and vom¬ 
iting. Anyone can ascertain the unpleasant sensations caused in 
a few minutes by simply breathing back and forth into a closed 
bag. It is reasonable to suppose that if this is kept up for many 
minutes the effect will be much greater, and may easily lead to 
nausea and vomiting. 

Quick or rough handling of a patient coming out of anes¬ 
thesia will often induce vomiting, and ought to be completely 
avoided. Attempts to prevent vomiting by the use of drugs have 
proved as unsuccessful as a similar treatment for seasickness. 
Morphin given before the anesthesia has been proclaimed as a pre¬ 
ventive, but it certainly is not one. Inhalation of acetic acid and 
other pungent odors after the anesthesia are of doubtful value. 
Rather to be recommended is the inhalation of oxygen for twenty 
minutes after chloroform and for an hour after ether. 

Recently it has been pointed out that the presence in the 
stomach of saliva and mucus saturated with the anesthetic pro¬ 
motes vomiting, and the claim has been made that nausea and 
vomiting will be prevented if the stomach is washed out after an 
anesthesia. It is certainly true that if the anesthetic is given in 
such a manner that there is no such accumulation of vapor-soaked 
fluid in the stomach, vomiting is less likely to occur, but this may 
be due entirely to the smaller quantity of anesthetic and its more 
skillful administration. It must also be admitted that some of 
the worst cases of nausea and vomiting occur with an empty 
stomach or are not terminated when the stomach is emptied. 

If a patient vomits food it is well to pass a stomach tube and 
wash out the stomach, so that one may be sure it is empty. I a- 
tients who are troubled with continued nausea or 1 epeated attacks 
of vomiting are often relieved by a drink ol hot water half a 
pint or more. This will usually be vomited promptly, and the 
constant gagging will cease. Sometimes it is retained, and the 
good effect is produced just the same. Apparently the dilution 
of the stomach contents stops the irritation. A plan worth tiying 
with nervous patients is to inject bromide of soda, well diluted 
with water, into the rectum previous to the return of consciousness. 

Shock. —The means of combating shock have been mentioned 
above under the paragraphs devoted to Failure of Respiration 
and Pulse (p. 704 et seq.). Most of them are as applicable to 


710 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


shock after the patient is in bed as they are on the table. A reverse 
inclined position may be obtained by raising the foot of the bed 
on two chairs. This is about as much incline as is practical unless 
some means are used to prevent the patient slipping to the head 
of the bed. External heat is a good stimulant, and may be applied 
to both the trunk and extremities. No leaky bag or bottle should 
be used, and a layer of blanket should always lie between the hot 
bottle and the patient’s flesh. This external heat should not be 
used as a routine treatment irrespective of the patient’s condition. 
It is a very poor policy to give a sweat bath to a patient who is 
free from shock by surrounding him with hot bottles and wrapping 
him in several blankets. Yet this mistake is repeatedly made 
simply because the treatment is part of a routine intended to over¬ 
come shock. The wise thing is to note the condition of patient 
and his extremities, and to apply external heat and thick cover¬ 
ings only when needed. 

Perspiration. —A cold perspiration is one of the cardinal 
symptoms of shock, and may occur during or after the anesthesia 
when shock is present. As it causes an additional loss of heat 
from an already overtaxed patient, it should be looked upon as a 
signal for the application of external heat. When the patient is 
put to bed the wet clothing should be quickly removed, the skin 
dried by brisk friction, and a hot blanket wrapped about the body 
and external heat applied. Atropin has a greater power to check 
excessive secretion than any other drug, but either during the 
anesthesia or afterwards it should be used only with the full knowl¬ 
edge and consent of the surgeon. A satisfactory dose is T grain 
of atropin sulphate. If perspiration is profuse, the loss of fluid 
is serious for the weakened patient. It is therefore well to replace 

it by injecting a pint of hot saline beneath the breast or into the 
flank. 

Death. Mortality from anesthetics is underestimated. The 
truth of this statement is becoming generally recognized. Large 
series of cases from hospitals in which expert anesthetists are em- 
ploved, and in which the death rate from the anesthetic is usually 
fai below that obtained in general practice, show that the old 
figures of one death on the table in 10,000 or 20,000 administra¬ 
tions are far too sanguine. There are few doctors who before or 
after their graduation have not seen at least one such death; most 



STATUS LYMPHATICUS 


711 


surgeons have seen several. Yet 10,000 anesthesias means three 
every week day for ten years, and there are comparatively few 
persons, even among professional anesthetists, who have had oppor¬ 
tunity for such extended observation. The immediate mortality is 
probably much nearer 1 in 1,000 than 1 in 10,000. 

It is, however, the late mortality which chiefly escapes notice. 
Fatalities due to bronchitis or pneumonia, to persistent vomiting, 
and to suppression of urine and acetonuria are largely due to the 
anesthetic. When they are counted and added to the immediate 
deaths, the total mortality will he surprisingly large—probably 
nearly one per cent of all patients who take an anesthetic 
for half an hour or longer. Here is a fertile field for improve¬ 
ment, but something more is needed than a mere count of those 
who die. We must know the causes of death, and perhaps it will 
help even more to know of the narrow escapes of some of the 
survivors. 

Death after an operation is in almost all instances due to one 
of these seven causes: 

1. The anesthetic (immediate or late death). 

2. Loss of bodily heat (one of the contributing causes of pneu¬ 
monia). 

3. Operative trauma (pulling nerves, tearing tissues, etc.). 

4. Hemorrhage (at the operation or afterwards). 

5. Thrombosis, embolism, fat embolism. 

6. Gross interference with the function of a vital organ (stran¬ 
gulation of intestine, ligation of ureter, etc.). 

7. Infection. 

The anesthetist is concerned with the first two. The mortality 
from an anesthetic may be due to the choice of a wrong anesthetic. 
A patient may succumb to chloroform who would survive ether, or 
vice versa. It may be due to a too prolonged anesthesia, or to a 
too concentrated vapor, or to both. That is, the percentage of the 
anesthetic in the blood may be fatally high, producing death from 
suffocation, or a less percentage may be kept up so long that it 
produces tissue changes, which prove fatal, though possibly not 
until several days have elapsed. 

Status Lymphaticus. —Sudden death may occur in a pa¬ 
tient having status lymphaticus, no matter what the anesthetic. 



712 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


Such patients are pale, with a pasty complexion and enlarged 
glands, especially in the neck, although these may be obscured by 
an excess of subcutaneous fat. Adenoids are often present, as 
well as enlarged tonsils, enlarged thyroid, and a persistent thy¬ 
mus, which may be palpable above the sternum, and a pal¬ 
pable spleen. The blood pressure is low, as shown by the pulse, 
by dilated pupils, and by flapping heart sounds. Death may 
occur very quickly, the only warning being a few feeble res¬ 
pirations and a quickly failing pulse. It is thought by some to 
be due to pressure of the large thymus on the trachea. Very little 
anesthetic should be given such patients, and the head should be 
kept low. 

Acid Intoxication. —Much has been written lately of inju¬ 
rious effects noticed some days after the administration of an anes¬ 
thetic. They consist in degenerative changes in the cells, espe¬ 
cially of the liver and kidneys. In marked cases the symptoms 
resemble those of acute yellow atrophy of the liver, the organ being 
atrophied and showing necrotic and fatty degenerative changes. 

The first symptoms usually appear in twelve to twenty-four 
hours. They are restlessness, vomiting, mild delirium, slight jaun¬ 
dice, a rapid pulse, an irregular fever, and scanty urine, often 
containing acetone. 1 n severe cases these symptoms increase; 
breathing becomes labored, cyanosis and capillary hemorrhage de¬ 
velop, muscular spasms are added, the fever increases, and then 
come coma and death, generally in three or four days after opera¬ 
tion. The blood has a clierry-red color, sometimes noticeable be¬ 
fore death in the area of skin scrubbed for operation. 

Various names have been given to post-anesthetic poisoning. 
Acidosis, acetonuria, and delayed chloroform poisoning are used, 
as well as acid intoxication. This condition is oftener seen 
after chloroform, but may also follow ether or ethyl chlorid. It 
is due to a long-continued influence of the anesthetic upon the cell 
protoplasm resulting not only from a prolonged anesthesia, but 
also from a slow elimination after the administration has ceased. 
Patients with anemia, from whatever cause, septic patients, and 
patients with disease of the liver or biliary passages, seem espe¬ 
cially prone to this poisoning. Fat persons are also said to be 
susceptible, possibly because their tissues absorb so much chloro¬ 
form. The risk is also greater when the patient has been deprived 



RECORDS 


713 


of carbohydrates for some days previous to the anesthesia. It is 
well to consider this before giving chloroform to a patient who has 
been upon Ochsner treatment. 

Acidosis often yields to correct treatment if promptly given. 
In fact, there are many cases of post-anesthetic continued vomiting 
with scanty urine in which the diagnosis is not made, and the 
patient recovers without treatment. One should make it a rule 
if vomiting continues for more than twelve hours to wash out the 
stomach with a solution of bicarbonate of soda and to leave a few 
ounces in the organ. If vomiting continues and other symptoms 
develop this treatment should be repeated every few hours. In 
addition, dextrose or glucose should be given by mouth or rectum, 
and as soon as possible the patient should take gruels and other 
forms of farinaceous food. In a grave case the patient should be 
given an intravenous injection of a quart of water containing one 
ounce of carbonate of soda. 

As a precautionary measure, when chloroform is to be given 
to anemic or emaciated persons or those having hepatic disease, 
an extra diet of carbohydrates is recommended for a few days 
previous to operation. 

After anesthesia the air should be fresh or mixed with oxygen, 
and respiration free to favor a rapid elimination of the drug. 

Bronchitis and Pneumonia.— It has long been recognized 
that post-operative bronchitis and pneumonia may be due to the 
anesthetic. The anesthetist has not done his full share in pre¬ 
venting them unless he warms the anesthetic vapor, mixes some 
oxygen with it, uses the minimum quantity, administers it evenly, 
and protects the patient from the loss of bodily heat—for all of 
these things have been shown to lessen the risk. 

Records. —For his own instruction and for the education of 
his surgeon, an anesthetist should keep a brief record of every 
anesthesia showing (1) the preliminary medication, if any, (2) 
the amount of anesthetic used, (3) the duration of its adminis¬ 
tration, (4) the character of recovery from the anesthetic with or 
without nausea, etc., and (5) any unpleasant symptoms and their 
probable cause. A copy of this should be given the surgeon. On 
the next page is a copy of a card used for this purpose by a pro¬ 
fessional anesthetist. The data should not be so numerous as to 
take too much time for their record. The amount of anesthetic 


714 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


and duration of anesthesia are the facts to fix in the surgeon’s 
memory. 


ANESTHETIC RECORD 

Name 

Age 

Residence 


Operation 

at 

Performed by Dr. 

191 

Hypodermic: Morphin 

Atropin 

Anesthetic began 

ended 

Pulse 

Respiration 

Used Gallons of Gas 

; of Oxygen ; 

Drams of Ether 

; of Chloroform ; 

Time of Operation 

hr. min. 

Remarks: 

.M. D. 

Anesthetist. 


An anesthetist cannot hope to choose intelligently the anes¬ 
thetic best adapted to a particular patient, nor to he able to say 
positively how much a given patient can take with safety, nor to 
estimate the relative importance of different restorative measures 
until he knows more of the after-effects of the anesthetic he gives. 
How many anesthetists, even professional ones, know whether their 
patients live or die ? How rarely does one ever have the chance 
to obtain even at second hand, through the nurse or doctor, knowl¬ 
edge as to the existence of symptoms properly attributable to the 
anesthesia. Yet without such knowledge an anesthetist can with 
difficulty develop the technic and judgment which will justify the 
existence of his specialty. 

It may be said in opposition to this plan that an anesthetist 
would have to charge prohibitive fees to justify such an expendi¬ 
ture of time. A little calculation will disprove this idea. If an 
anesthetist can give one anesthesia at $10 and two at $5, six days 
a week, he will have an annual gross income of over $6,000, and 
after paying for his anesthetics and traveling expenses and a tele- 







NITROUS OXID GAS 


715 


phone, which is the only office expense he need have, there will 
remain a net income of over $4,000 a year, with plenty of spare 
time to ascertain and record the post-operative symptoms of his 
patients. A moderate degree of success in his field will quickly 
run his income up to figures well above those given. It is clearly 
the duty of the whole profession to raise the standard of anes¬ 
thesia by encouraging young men to devote themselves to it as a 
specialty; and, still further, by giving those who show aptitude 
for the subject access to the records kept, and opportunity to talk 
with convalescent patients and to make such tests in suitable cases 
as shall help toward the solution of many problems. 

ANESTHETICS 

Nitrous Oxid Gas, —Nitrous oxid gas was discovered by 
Priestly in 1776, but it was not until 1844 that Wells demon¬ 
strated its anesthetic power. It was slow in coming into general 
use. Its cost, the expensive and cumbersome apparatus its adminis¬ 
tration required, and the skill necessary to obtain good results with 
it, all tended to delay its practical acceptance by the profession. 
Occasional attempts were made to popularize it, but with no gen¬ 
eral effect, and its use for many years was almost entirely con¬ 
fined to dental offices, until the idea was hit upon that it might 
be used to induce an anesthesia, afterwards to be carried on by 
ether. Within a short time the practice became widespread, espe¬ 
cially in the better hospitals. It is easy to put a patient under gas; 
it is difficult to maintain a satisfactory anesthesia with it. More¬ 
over, the amount of gas used for induction of anesthesia is so small 
that the cost is negligible. Thus two of the hindrances to its gen¬ 
eral use were eliminated. But even now, though thousands of 
anesthetists are daily giving gas to induce anesthesia, only a few 
of them use it as the sole or chief agent to produce an anesthesia, 
lasting more than a few minutes. 

The technic of the administration of gas for a primary or 
induction anesthesia differs so much from the technic of its ad¬ 
ministration for a prolonged anesthesia, that their separate descrip¬ 
tion is advisable. General rules for the administration of an 
anesthetic have been given at the beginning of this chapter. They 
should be observed in the administration of gas. 


716 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


Primary or Induction Anesthesia with Gas.— Apparatus. —Ni¬ 
trous oxid gas is supplied in cylinders containing a hundred gallons. 
Extra light cylinders can now be obtained weighing about seven 
pounds. The gas weighs twenty-five ounces. As the weight of the 
cylinder empty is recorded upon it, one can always determine the 
amount of gas remaining in a partly used cylinder by weighing 
it and subtracting the net weight of the cylinder. Of course the 
scales must he accurate, as every ounce means four gallons of gas. 

The cylinder is fitted with a valve and a yoke. The latter con¬ 
ducts the escaping gas to a rubber tube which connects with the 
inhaler (Eig. 406). The yoke must be properly adjusted, so that 
its opening fits the opening in the cylinder, and its bent tube leads 
away from the cylinder. 

The cylinder may be clamped to a table or chair, or it may be 
intrusted to an assistant, or the anesthetist may hold it between 
his feet, or sit on it, or place it beneath the pillow of the patient. 
The object is so to fix the cylinder that the valve can be easily 
reached and turned with one hand. The valve should always be 
tested before the inhaler is applied to the patient, to see that it 
works easily, and to acquaint the patient with the noise of the 
escaping gas. If the valve sticks so that the gas does not flow 
smoothly, it is well to turn it quickly on and off, repeating this 
motion until a sufficient amount of gas is in the apparatus. In 
this way the escaping gas is absolutely under control. If one 
slowly releases a sticking valve the gas may come out with a rush 
sufficient to blow off the rubber tube or burst the bag of the appa¬ 
ratus. If the anesthetist intrusts the cylinder to an unskilled 
assistant he should make him turn the gas on and off a few times 
before connecting the cylinder with the apparatus. 

The inhaler consists of a face piece which must fit accurately 
over the nose and mouth, a flexible bag which must hold at least 
two quarts, and preferably four, and an attachment for the rubber 
tube leading from the cylinder. This attachment must be pro¬ 
vided with a stopcock if it is intended to detach the inhaler from 
the gas cylinder before beginning the anesthesia. If an outlet 
valve is provided, a continuous supply of gas must also be pro¬ 
vided; otherwise the patient will make futile attempts to inhale 
from a collapsed bag, or, what is more likely, he will escape from 
the anesthesia by breathing air which leaks in under the edge of 


NITROUS OXID GAS 


717 



the face piece. These are the essentials of the apparatus. If the 
gas is to be followed by ether or chloroform, some provision should 
be made whereby the second anesthetic may be given gradually 
while the patient is still inhaling gas; otherwise there may be a 
partial, or even a complete return to consciousness, as the effect 
of the gas disappears almost as soon as it is withdrawn. 

The face piece must fit accurately, making everywhere an 
almost air-tight contact. It may he wholly of metal, its rim cut 
irregularly to fit the nose, cheeks, and chin, or it may be of metal 
and rubber. In the 
latter case the edge of 
the metal part may be 
circular or oval. The 
rubber part may he a 
simple cylinder of soft 
rubber, the edge of 
which is cut to fit the 
nose, or it may he pro¬ 
vided with a tubular 
edge which can he 
blown up and then 
pressed against the 
face. The former de¬ 
vice is simpler, more 
readily cleansed, and 
is equally efficacious. 

The face piece 
should he tested before 
the gas is turned on. 

, the 

defect may he reme¬ 
died by pressing its edge down on a strip of absorbent cotton 
wrung out of warm water, or after the face piece has been applied 
a wet towel may he wrapped around its edge. 

The patient must he clean shaven. It is useless to try to put 
a man under gas if any part of the rim of the face piece rests on 
a heard. Enough air will gain access to the lungs to defeat 

narcosis. 

The hag which acts as a reservoir in the usual dental appa- 


If its fit is faulty 


Fig. 406 .—Simple Apparatus for Giving Nitrous 
Oxid Gas. Total weight, exclusive of cylinder, 
l}i pounds. 







718 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


ratus is made of rubberized cloth or mackintosh. If the apparatus 
permits rebreathing the bag should be easy to clean. Hence, a 
pure rubber bag is preferable. A large pure gum ice bag, made 
of rubber as soft as surgeon’s gloves, answers very well and costs 
thirty or forty cents. A small hole is cut in it to admit the stop- 
cock. An elastic band wrapped several times around the two will 
make an air-tight joint. This makes an inexpensive apparatus, 
and one which takes up very little space. Its total weight, exclusive 
of the gas cylinder, is one and a quarter pounds (Fig. 406). The 
better and more durable apparatus used in hospitals and by those 
who make a practice of anesthetics weighs a little more. 

To administer nitrous oxid gas the face piece is first applied 
and the gas turned on slowly, and then in greater amount if neces¬ 
sary to fill the bag. There is no spasm of the larynx, no cough nor 
any hesitation in breathing, since nitrous oxid gas is not at all 
irritating to the most sensitive throat. After two or three breaths 
the patient’s color changes, becoming at first more flushed, and 
then somewhat darker. If the anesthetic is continued without 
admixture of air or oxygen, this cyanosis increases until the patient 
becomes a dark blue and then almost black, or a sickly, lead color 
as respiration ceases. 

Respiration from the start is deepened and accelerated, and 
may become panting as the patient feels the lack of oxygen. If 
the anesthetic is pushed further, respiration often ceases rather 
suddenly. The heart is at first stimulated and the pulse is full 
and rapid. The rapidity increases with an increase of the gas, 
but if a dangerous amount is given the pulse slows and may become 
imperceptible. 

The pupils dilate widely even with a safe amount of gas. 
In a dangerously deep anesthesia they are still more widely 
dilated. The eyelids may stand open, showing the eyes rolled 
upward. 

Complete anesthesia may be obtained with five or ten breaths 
of nitrous oxid gas, especially if there is some rebreathing, or the 
patient may continue to breathe it for many minutes without los¬ 
ing consciousness. Half a minute to two minutes may be given 
as fair limits to the production of unconsciousness. If an effect 
is not produced promptly there is reason to suspect the apparatus. 
Ir probably does not fit the face accurately, or the bag holding the 


NITROUS OXID GAS 


719 


gas is too small to permit a full inhalation of gas alone, or there 
is a leak in the apparatus. 

There are, however, muscular and alcoholic subjects who are 
put under gas only with great difficulty or not at all. A prelimi¬ 
nary dose of morphin or other narcotic (see p. 695) is advised by 
many anesthetists in all cases, and is usually insisted on in mus¬ 
cular and alcoholic cases. 

If the gas anesthesia is a primary one, the removal of the 
inhaler permits the patient to breathe pure air. Consciousness 
usually returns as soon as a few breaths are taken, though it may 
be delayed for a minute or two. There is rarely any nausea or 
headache. There may be dizziness or uncertain mental action for 
a few minutes. The accelerated respiration of the anesthesia is 
automatically continued for a few moments, and materially hastens 
a return to consciousness. 

Contraindications for the use of gas to induce anesthesia as 
for brief operations are confined to the existence of obstructions 
to respiration, such as an abscess in the throat, an obstruction in 
the larynx, a large thymus or tumor pressing on the trachea, etc. 
These things need only be regarded as contraindications if they 
are extreme enough to seriously embarrass respiration, but any 
patient with swelling of the mouth or throat should be carefully 
observed every minute of a gas anesthesia. 

Danger from gas is due to an overdose. The patient becomes 
cyanotic and then ceases to breathe. Removal of the apparatus, 
combined with artificial respiration if need be, will revive the 
patient. It is a mistake to think of gas as absolutely safe. A 
number of deaths from its use have been recorded. 

Nitrous Oxid Gas for Prolonged Anesthesia.—If prolonged anes¬ 
thesia is desired, it is necessary to allow the patient to breathe 
some air or else to mix oxygen with the gas, for if gas only be 
given the patient becomes cyanotic in a few minutes and then 
ceases to breathe. If a few breaths of air are allowed the gas can 
be given again with safety. This method of alternating gas and 
air is unsatisfactory, since it is likely to produce a struggling 
patient. Moreover, it is not free from danger. A better plan is 
to allow the patient a little air by slightly raising one edge of the 
face piece, or by opening the air valve, if the apparatus is pro¬ 
vided with one. A very little air is sufficient to keep the patient 


720 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


breathing regularly and to ward off deep cyanosis. If much air 
is allowed anesthesia is interrupted, and the patient becomes rest¬ 
less and may retch or even vomit. This method requires the 
closest observation on the part of the anesthetist, but a little prac¬ 
tice will enable any observing person to administer gas in this 
way for half an hour or more, keeping most patients more or less 
constantly in the stage of surgical anesthesia. There will be some 
cyanosis and the blood will be darker than it is in a safe stage 
of chloroform or ether anesthesia. The amount of gas used will 
vary with different patients and different anesthetists from 150 
to 300 gallons per hour. There are some patients who cannot 
be satisfactorily anesthetized with gas and air. 

Oxygen mixed with gas gives a far better anesthesia than when 
air is admitted. The amount of oxygen required is much less than 
the amount of air, and hence the patient may get, if necessary, 
a higher percentage of gas in each inhalation. The anesthesia is 
better maintained and with less cyanosis when oxygen is employed. 
It has been found that the gas at the time of inhalation should 
contain from sixteen to twenty-two per cent of air, or from ten to 
twenty per cent of oxygen. Even less oxygen will prevent cya¬ 
nosis. The greater quantity is often needed to avoid a too deep 
anesthesia. If oxygen is used in this manner, from twenty to 
forty gallons are consumed per hour. 

If the gas and air, or oxygen, are inhaled at the body tem¬ 
perature, they are more quickly taken up by the blood and there 
is less loss by exhalation. In this way there is a saving of about 
one third of the gas and oxygen employed. A greater economy is 
effected by permitting a certain amount of rebreathing. Gatch 
has arranged an apparatus by which rebreathing in periods of two 
minutes is easily carried out. The resulting cyanosis is so slight 
as to do the patient no harm. In fact, it is said to improve his 
condition by keeping up blood pressure. 

Gas-oxygen is not suited to prolonged operations about the 
mouth. In cases of respiratory difficulty and of high blood pres¬ 
sure, any form of anesthesia which produces cyanosis should be 
avoided. With these exceptions there are no contraindications to 
gas with oxygen, which gives beyond doubt the safest anesthesia 
known. Still, one fatality at least has been reported from its use. 
Ao anesthetist has mastered his art until he has learned to give 


NITROUS OXID GAS 


721 



it perfectly. And when he has done so he will have little difficulty 
in winning surgeons and patients to its use. 

Apparatus. —The usual form of gas apparatus can he used 
for giving gas and oxygen by connecting both cylinders with the 


Fig. 407 .— Gwathmey’s Apparatus for Giving Warmed Nitrous Oxid Gas and 
Oxygen. A , Gas cylinder, showing coil, D ; B , gas cylinder, showing cup, E , for 
hot water; C , oxygen cylinder; F , inhaler with valve to show percentage of gas 
and oxygen given, and other valves to admit air. 

inhaler by means of a Y tube. It is better to carry the Y up 
close to the inhaler, having a separate hag for the gas and for the 
oxygen. In Grwathmey ? s apparatus a valve shows approximately 

















722 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


the percentages of gas and oxygen given. In this apparatus pro¬ 
vision is made for heating the gas. As the gas escapes from the 
cylinder it passes through a metallic coil, immersed in hot water 
held in a cup, fitted to the top of the cylinder (Fig. 407). 

A more elaborate apparatus has been devised by Teter, and 
extensively used by him and others (Fig. 408). This appa- 



Fig. 408. Gas-oxygen Apparatus with Attachments for Four Cylinders on 
a Foot Plate. A, Inhaler; B, tank for warming the gases; C, attachment for 
dropping ether into the stream of gas and oxygen; D, attachment for giving ether 
vapor. (Teter’s apparatus as modified by Coburn.) 


i atus looks cumbersome, but one should not be frightened by its 
appearance. Its weight without, cylinders is sixteen pounds. 
It can be used with a stand, but if provided with a foot plate 
it will stand on a chair, and then it will pack into an ordinary 
suit case. Its advantages are very real and far outweigh its 
pounds avoirdupois. The cylinders are fixed so that they need 
never be held while the valves are turned. Either gas or oxygen 
or any mixture of the two, is delivered warm. A little ether vapor 
may be added if the patient is restless or if muscular relaxation 







NITROUS OXID GAS 


723 


is not complete. It is astonishing what a lasting effect a single 
dram of ether will have when used in this combination. Pure 
oxygen is constantly at hand to revive the patient if he shows 
signs of collapse, or at the close of the anesthesia. 

Complications and Dangers. —There are only two compli¬ 
cations peculiar to gas-air and gas-oxygen anesthesia. One is a 
failure to secure sufficiently deep anesthesia. This is due usually 
to lack of practice. The addition of a small amount of ether 
vapor will correct this. Most forms of apparatus provide for the 
administration of a little ether while the patient is breathing the 
gas. If the apparatus does not provide for this, the gas inhaler 
may be removed and the ether or chloroform inhaler substituted, 
and after a few breaths the gas inhaler may be replaced. A 
preliminary injection of morphin lessens the frequency of this 
emergency. 

The other complication is the development of extreme cya¬ 
nosis. The best remedies are always at hand, namely, oxygen or 
air. The gas should be reduced or discontinued and the percent¬ 
age of oxygen increased until the color and respirations are again 
good. It should be understood that there is apt to be more cya¬ 
nosis with gas and air than with gas and oxygen, on account of 
the fact that the high percentage of gas required for anesthesia 
(80 to 90 per cent) does not always leave room enough for suf¬ 
ficient air to oxygenate the blood. Ten per cent of air will not 
do this, while 10 jier cent of oxygen will. If the patient can be 
anesthetized with 80 per cent of gas there will be no cyanosis in 
either case. If the apparatus does not permit the percentage of 
•gas administered to be varied at will, cyanosis can be overcome 
by allowing a little air—a very little air—to leak in around the 
face piece. This should never be attempted until the patient is 
well under the gas. 

Other accidents arising during gas-air or gas-oxygen anesthesia 
are almost unknown. If any should arise they should be met by 
the precautions given at the beginning of this chapter. 

As far as known there are no serious post-anesthetic complica¬ 
tions attributable to nitrous oxid gas. Animals have been anes¬ 
thetized with it for days, and have apparently suffered no perma¬ 
nent injury. While one hesitates to compare results obtained in 
healthy animals with those observed in sick men, clinical observa- 





724 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


tion thus far shows no serious after effects of prolonged gas anes¬ 
thesia. Headache and nausea and vomiting may continue for an 
hour or two after the anesthesia, but there seem to he no paren¬ 
chymatous changes in the vital organs, such as are frequently 
found after ether and chloroform. 

Ether.—The intoxicating properties of sulphuric ether were 
known some time before its anesthetic possibilities were recog¬ 
nized. College students and others often inhaled it to experience 
its exhilarating effects. It was also known to many that those 
under its influence were more or less insensitive to pain, hut the 
vast import of this fact was not recognized. Hence the difficulty 
in determining who is the real discoverer of anesthesia. Long, 
Wells, Morton, Marcy, and Jackson all claimed the honor. Long 
has the distinct advantage of an entry in his ledger, date of March 
30, 1842, showing that he gave ether for the removal of a small 
tumor, charging two dollars for anesthetic and operation. In 1844 
Wells, acting on a suggestion by Alarcy, gave ether successfully 
for extraction of a tooth. Neither he nor Alarcy knew of Long’s 
previous use of it in surgery. In 1846 Alorton gave ether for a 
surgical operation, at Jackson’s suggestion, so it is claimed. Let 
him who will weigh the deserts of the claimants and apportion the 
honor. Within a few years the use of ether was known in all 
civilized countries, hut its general adoption was seriously checked 
by the discovery of chloroform in 1847. This is not the place 
to review the history of the struggle for the mastery between 
these two anesthetics—a struggle which has lasted half a cen¬ 
tury and has not yet come to an end. Their respective merits 
are set forth in the section on the choice of an anesthetic on • 
page 743. 

Ether is the commonest anesthetic, at least, in America, and 
its use is on the increase in Europe. It is.beyond doubt the most 
satisfactory anesthetic for the unskilled administrator. He is able 
to anesthetize all patients with it and few will die on the table. 
This is not to say that skill is wasted in the administration of 
ether. On the contrary, this anesthetic offers a splendid field for 
exact administration, but the other anesthetics simply cannot be 
given satisfactorily except with a certain amount of skill. Hence, 
as long as there are unskilled anesthetists, ether will hold an un¬ 
disputed place. 


ETHER 


725 


Symptoms of Ether Anesthesia. —Ether vapor, especially 
when cold, is irritating to many persons. Some of them are nau¬ 
seated by its odor, but this is less noticeable with a pure product 
than with an impure one. It stimulates the secretion of mucus 
and saliva, and if too concentrated excites coughing and laryngeal 
spasm. Many male patients spit violently into the inhaler as soon 
as their sense of propriety is somewhat dulled. Others expe¬ 
rience a feeling of suffocation and attempt to pull the cone from 
the face, or to turn the head aside so as to breathe pure air. Still 
other patients retch and many vomit in the beginning of the anes¬ 
thetic. These symptoms are much less likely to occur if the vapor 
is given steadily, but without much concentration at first. They 
are also less marked if a warmed vapor is used. They are usu¬ 
ally absent when the administration is skilled. 

Commencing Anesthesia .—The normal symptoms observed be¬ 
fore the stage of surgical anesthesia is reached are a flushed face, 
deepened respiration, a quickened pulse, and a slight moisture of 
the skin. There may be a little rigidity of the muscles which soon 
passes off as the anesthesia deepens and gives place to an increas¬ 
ing placidity. The occurrence of excessive rigidity and clonic con¬ 
tractions is a state which is commonly seen in alcoholics. It is rare 
with other patients unless the administration is very irregular- It 
passes off as more ether is given. Blood pressure is slightly raised at 
first, but prolonged etherization greatly lowers the blood pressure. 

The pupils may be dilated or contracted. If dilated they will 
react to light. A preliminary dose of morplim will ha\e the effect 
of making the pupil smaller. The corneal reflex is maintained 
and is shown by a tightening of the eyelids when one attempts to 
lift the upper lid. The lining of the lid and the eyeball should 

never be touched with the finger. 

Excitement is far less common now that pure ether is generally 
employed. With an even administration it is absent or of slight 
degree except in neurotic or alcoholic subjects. But even the quiet¬ 
est patient, if unrestrained, should be closely watched until sur¬ 
gical anesthesia is reached, for occasionally a patient hitherto 
absolutely quiet will strike away the inhaler and spring to a sit¬ 
ting posture in perfect delirium. 

Surgical Anesthesia .—The signs of surgical anesthesia have 

been given on page G97. When ether is the agent the pupils are 



726 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


moderately dilated but react to light; the eyelid closes slowly 
when raised and released; the eyes often roll slowly from side to 
side; the arm is limp; respiration is regular at a normal rate or 
a little increased, and there may he a light snoring; the pulse, which 
may have risen to over 100, falls to 90 or 80, or even lower; the 
skin is pink and slightly moist; when the skin is pinched the 
patient does not move. This degree of surgical anesthesia is 
reached in seven to fifteen or more minutes if ether alone is given. 
One to three ounces of ether are required for the purpose. From 
this point on less anesthetic is necessary, three ounces an hour 
being sufficient when carefully given. 

Danger Signals .—Signs of too deep anesthesia from ether are 
absolutely flabby muscles, shown by eyelids remaining open when 
separated, lips loose or blowing in and out with respiration, dilated 
pupils not reacting to light, a deep respiration possibly with heavy 
snoring, or a light irregular respiration with pale skin, or other 
symptoms of shock. The treatment is to stop the ether, give 
oxygen, and perform artificial respiration if the patient fails to 
breathe. FT) more ether should be given until muscular tone is 
restored, and then only in limited amount. The various accidents 
of anesthesia common to ether and other agents are described, and 
remedies given on pages 699 to 707. 

Methods of Administering Ether.— Ether may be given 
by inhalation in three ways: (1) by the open method, (2) by the 
closed method, and (3) by the vapor method. 

1. The Open Method .—Ether is poured or dropped on a layer 
of pervious material, such as a sponge, gauze, or cotton, held at a 
little distance from the mouth or nose. Light layers of gauze may 
be laid across the face, or spread on a wire mask, or arranged in 
a cone which is freely open at the top and which may be of home 
construction, from paper or pasteboard and a towel, or it may be 
of metal with a rubber face piece. 

The apparatus should be so constructed that its permanent 
parts are easily cleaned, and the gauze easily changed. The care¬ 
less practice of using a cone over and over again without renewing 
or sterilizing such parts as a patient breathes upon merits severe 
condemnation. 

When ether is given by the open method there is said to be no 
rebreathing of expired air. This is relatively but not absolutely 



ETHER 


727 


true, for the portion of expired air lying between the ether-soaked 
gauze and the nose or mouth is always rebreatlied. In some forms 
of apparatus this amounts to several cubic inches, but it is usually 
mixed with a much larger quantity of fresh air, which streams 
through the gauze or leaks under the face piece during inspiration. 
Its effect is, therefore, negligible. The inspired air is always 
very cold, having given up its heat to vaporize the liquid ether 
placed on the gauze. 

2. The Closed Method .—The ether is poured on a pervious 
material which is contained in a cylinder or other form of appa- 



Fig. 409.— Apparatus for Giving Gas and Ether or Ether by the ( losed or 
Open‘Method. A, Inhaler; B, outlet valve; C, reservoir containing gauze to be 
saturated with ether; D, valve to regulate mixture of gas and ether; h, valve to 
admit air; F, bag for gas, or to permit rebreathing. (Gwathmey.) 

ratus open only at its ends. One end is made to fit closely to 
the face, usually by means of a rubber ring, while the other fits 
into a soft-rubber bag large enough to hold without pressure the 
whole expired breath (Fig. 409). I he patient breathes back and 
forth into the bag, each inspired breath passing the ether dia- 






728 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


phragm twice—once in the previous expiration and once in the 
inspiration. The percentages of ether and of carbon dioxid may 
easily become high under the circumstances. The inspired air 
is always warm and may have almost the temperature of the 
body as it passes back and forth, with little chance to lose the 
heat, which is renewed each time it is breathed. Rebreathing 
produces a certain amount of cyanosis. It is obvious that perfect 
rebreathing would soon lead to a dangerous cyanosis. TIence, if 
the apparatus does not leak anywhere a little fresh air must be 
admitted either by inlet and outlet valves or under the edge of 
the face piece. The blood pressure is varied even more than 
when ether is given by the open method, on account of cya¬ 
nosis, but this rise is soon followed by a fall as anesthesia 
continues. 

3. The Vapor Method .—Air is pumped through a modified 
Wolff bottle containing ether. It takes up a varying amount of 
ether, according to the depth of the fluid through which it bubbles. 
The amount is rarely over six per cent. It is then pumped through 
a second bottle containing warm water, and then passes into the 
inhaler, or it may be conducted directly into the mouth or nose. 
If the water in the wash bottle is too hot it unduly rarefies the 
ether. A good temperature is 100° F. As it is cooled rapidly the 
water should be renewed every half hour or so, according to the 
size of the bottle. 

As it is difficult to keep many patients anesthetized with ether 
alone by the vapor method, the apparatus should also provide for 
the addition of chloroform vapor from time to time (Fig. 411, 
p. 733). 

The percentage of ether vapor taken up by the air which bub¬ 
bles through it may be increased by using a deep bottle and a 
larger quantity of liquid ether. Ihis makes the apparatus cumber¬ 
some and adds to the expense by leaving a large quantity of unused 
ether at the close of the operation. An ingenious device of Sutton 
compels the air bubbles to travel slowly around a spiral tube im¬ 
mersed in the ether bottle. 'Thus the percentage of ether in the 
inspired air is greatly increased, although the bottle is only filled 
with ether to the depth of an inch or two. 

I he good and bad points of these three methods of adminis¬ 
tration may be seen by a glance at the following table: 



ETHER 


729 



Open Method. 

Closed Method. 

Vapor Method. 

Amount of ether inhaled 

Amount of ether 

Unknown—varies 
greatly 

Known—variations 
slight 

Known—constant 

wasted*. 

Temperature of inhaled 

Large 

None 

None 

vapor. 

Amount of fresh air in- 

Cold 

Warm 

Warm 

haled. 

Ample 

Scanty 

Ample 

Cost of apparatus. 

Approximate cost of 

SO.— $3. 

$6.—$48. 

$9.—$50 

ether per hour. 

Secretion of mucus and 

4 oz. $.36 

3 oz. $.27 

2 oz. $.18 

saliva. 

Post-anesthetic nausea 

Considerable* 

Considerable! 

Less than by other 
methods 

and vomiting. 

Post-operative bronchi- 

More or lessf 

More or lesst 

Less than by other 
methods 

tis and pneumonia . . 

Difficulty with ath¬ 
letes, alcoholics and 

Some 

Less than by open 
method 

Least 

drug habitues. 

Considerable 

Less than by open 
method 

More than by 
other methods 


* This does not refer to ether remaining in can or bottle at the close of the 
operation. It means the waste by evaporation in the room. 

f Advocates of the open method and the closed method each claim a reduced 
amount of secretion of mucus and saliva. As swallowing of ether-soaked fluids 
is one of the causes of vomiting, it is of importance that such secretion be kept 
at a minimum. 

J On this point the claims of the advocates of the first two methods differ 
widely. The truth is that although the methods differ a good deal the skill of 
different anesthetists differs a great deal more. Some men will keep their com¬ 
plications and after effects at a low figure no matter what method they use, 
while others are constantly getting their patients into trouble. 


McKoberts has an ingenious plan so that, while giving ether 
by the open method, he warms the vapor before the patient in¬ 
hales it. lie fixes an electric light bulb (16 candle power) in an 
Allis inhaler, covers it with several layers of gauze, turns on the 
current, and drops ether on the gauze. It is rapidly volatilized 
and warmed by the light. The secretion of mucus and saliva is 
not stimulated as when a cold vapor is inspired. Much less ether 

is required than by the usual open method. 

Gas-Ether Sequence. —The induction of anesthesia with ni¬ 
trous oxid gas and its continuation with ether is spoken of as 


























730 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


gas-ether sequence. The initial narcosis with gas saves the patient 
from the smell of ether, and preliminary struggling, choking, and 
vomiting are avoided. The period of induction is one to four 
minutes instead of ten to fifteen minutes when ether alone is em¬ 
ployed. These advantages are so marked that everyone who gives 
anesthetics should provide himself with the necessary apparatus. 
There are some patients, chiefly children, who are frightened by 
the inhaler and noise of the gas. This may be urged as an objec¬ 
tion to the use of gas, but most of those patients will be frightened 
at any anesthesia, so that the one which produces unconsciousness 
most quickly and with safety is most humane. This is undoubt¬ 
edly nitrous oxid gas. 

To give the gas-ether sequence successfully it is well to make 
sure of the unconsciousness of the patient before changing from 
gas to ether. This is the more important if the change must be 
made suddenly. Apparatus made especially for the purpose is 
so constructed that the anesthetist can turn on the ether while the 
patient is still breathing gas. If a change must be made from a 
gas inhaler to an ether cone the patient should be so well anes¬ 
thetized as to insure several breaths of ether before the effect of 
the gas is wholly gone. Even then one will occasionally meet some 
struggling before quiet ether narcosis is established. After that 
the anesthesia is like a simple ether anesthesia. 

Contraindication to Ether. —Edema of the glottis, pres¬ 
sure on the trachea, and diseases of the lung, both acute and 
chronic, and the existence of a high blood pressure are contra¬ 
indications for the use of ether. On account of its irritating prop¬ 
erties many anesthetists are unwilling to give it to infants and 
young children. Such irritation is largely avoided if the warmed 
vapor is given. As ether disintegrates the blood to a certain extent, 
it should not be given when the hemoglobin is less than fifty per 
cent, and whenever given to an anemic person it should be fol¬ 
lowed by oxygen to hasten its elimination. Ether gives a post¬ 
anesthetic depression, and is, therefore, inferior to gas and oxygen 
for grave surgical operations likely to be followed by shock. 

Chloroform.—I he anesthetic properties of chloroform were 
discovered in 1847 by James Simpson. As he was looking for a 
superior anesthetic to ether at the time of the discovery, he lost 
no time in proclaiming the advantages of chloroform. 



CHLOROFORM 


731 


Its odor is agreeable. It can be inhaled without irritation. 
The throat is free from mucus and there is no cough. Sleep 
ensues rapidly—in five to ten minutes. Even alcoholics and ath¬ 
letes readily succumb to its influence. Many persons recover from 
it without nausea or vomiting. The quantity required for anes¬ 
thesia is small—less than an ounce an hour. It is, therefore, a 
cheap anesthetic, and one easily carried about. ISTo special appa¬ 
ratus is required for its administration. A folded handkerchief 
held near the nostrils answers very well, though gauze or stock¬ 
inette or flannel stretched over a wire frame is to be preferred. 

With these obvious advantages, chloroform rapidly became the 
anesthetic of choice in most parts of the world, and maintained 
that supremacy for years. Lately it has been steadily losing 
ground to ether. This has been due solely to the greater safety 
of ether, at least in unskilled hands. Whatever may be said of 
the safety of chloroform when given carefully, all must admit 
that when given carelessly it is a dangerous anesthetic. It lowers 
the blood pressure, and hence should never be administered sud¬ 
denly in a concentrated form. 

Methods of Administration. —Chloroform may be given by 
the open method and by the vapor method. 

Four thicknesses of gauze, or a single layer of stockinette or 
flannel is stretched on a wire frame and held near the mouth and 
nose. It is not necessary to touch the patient with the mask, but 
even the vapor of chloroform is irritating to a sensitive skin, 
so that nose, lips, cheeks, and chin should be lightly smeared with 
cold cream or vaseline. The patient is prepared according to the 
rules given on page 692. The chloroform is dropped upon the 
mask either from a special bottle or from one arranged with 
notches in the cork, or with a match or safety pin thrust between 
the cork and the neck of the bottle. l he object is to secure a 
series of rapid drops when the bottle is tilted. 1 he bottle should 
always be tested before it is lifted over the patient s face. 

While every anesthetic should be begun gradually, this is par¬ 
ticularly true of chloroform, since its freedom from irritation 
permits the patient to inhale easily a fatally high percentage of 
its vapor. The greatest caution should be observed in passing 
from gas or ether to chloroform. The stronger respiration under 
the anesthetic makes it doubly important that in the hist bieaths 




732 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


of chloroform the percentage of vapor should be very low. One 
should not pass directly from ethyl chlorid to chloroform, but 
should interpose a few breaths of ether. 

When forms of apparatus are employed which indicate the 
strength of the anesthetic, it is found that the inspired air should 



Iig. 410. Junker’s Apparatus for Giving Chloroform Vapor Attached to a 
Hollow Esmarch Mask. At its side are Gwathmey’s combined tongue de¬ 
pressor and tube and an ordinary metal tube to deliver the vapor in the nose or 
mouth. 

contain from one and a quarter to two per cent of chloroform. 
Unee per cent is dangerous if continued for many minutes, and 
foui per cent or over may produce sudden death. For this rea¬ 
son chloi oform should never be given by the closed method, and 
vhen an open mask is used only a part of the exposed surface 
should be saturated with chloroform—say one fourth of the 
surface for a dilute administration, one half on the average, 
thiee quarters when the patient requires an extra amount, but 

this only for a few breaths. The whole mask should never be 
saturated. 

Another method of estimating approximately the amount of 
chloroform inhaled, is to limit the amount dropped on the gauze 
in a period of five minutes. This should not exceed G c.c. for 







CHLOROFORM 


733 


any two consecutive five-minute periods. After anestliesia is 
established, less than 2 c.c. in five minutes is sufficient to con¬ 
tinue it. 

Some anesthetists use a mask covered with thin rubber outside 
of the gauze. In the center of this a hole is cut to permit the 
chloroform to fall on the gauze. This is an approach to the closed 
method of administration. It limits evaporation of chloroform, 
but gives the patient a more concentrated vapor. Plenty of air 
should be allowed to enter under the mask. This technic is not 
recommended to a beginner. 

Chloroform, when administered by the vapor method, loses 
much of its danger. This method, advocated by Junker, who de- 



Fig. 411._Gwathmey’s Three-bottle Modification of Junker's Apparatus 

for Giving Warm Ether or Chloroform Vapor. A, Rubber foot-pump; B, 
ball to equalize pressure; C, apparatus with valve which determines whether a 
single vapor or a mixture shall be given; D, glass tube to catch any liquid and pre¬ 
vent it reaching the patient; E, Esmarch mask covered by thin rubber to retard 

evaporation. 

vised a simple bottle for its employment (Fig. 410), lias been put 
forward in this country by Gwatluney and Brophy, each of whom 
has modified the original Junker apparatus so that the chloroform 
vapor is warmed before the patient inhales it. J his lendeis it 




734 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 



more dilute and therefore safer. The infrequency of accidents 
with chloroform in hot countries is now generally admitted to 
be due to the fact that the heat renders the inhaled vapor less 
dense. 

Brophy uses a two-bottle apparatus; Gwathmey a three-bottle 
one. In each form of apparatus one bottle contains warm water, 

through which the 
chloroform vapor is 
driven by means of a 
foot pump or rubber 
hand bulb. In Gwatli- 
mey’s apparatus (Figs. 
411 and 412) there is a 
third bottle containing 
ether, so that the patient 
may be given either 
vapor or both mixed. 

An English anes¬ 
thetist, Alcock, has de¬ 
vised an apparatus 
which will deliver 
with accuracy from 
one to three per cent 
of chloroform vapor 
(Fig. 413). As it is 
made of copper, the 
risk of breakage, so 
common with glass bot¬ 
tles, is eliminated. It 
costs £G in London. 
The air is driven 
through the chloroform 
by a foot bellows. 


Fig. 412.—Gwathmey’s Apparatus Turned Upside 
Down and the Bottles Removed to Show 
— A, Drum with fine holes so that air may escape 
and pass upward through ether in fine bubbles; 
B, slender stem for use in chloroform; C, Sut¬ 
ton’s spiral so arranged that a bubble of air has 
to make three complete revolutions of the drum 
through liquid ether before escaping at the top of 
the drum. 


Dubois lias also a metal apparatus in which air is pumped 
through chloroform, the power being supplied through a hand 
crank or a foot treadle. The mixture of air and chloroform is 
contained in a gasometer (Fig. 414). The percentage can be regu¬ 
lated to one tenth of one per cent, and the quantity supplied the 
patient is abundant. With this apparatus the proportion of cliloro- 




CHLOROFORM 


735 


form used need not be raised above two per cent, and that only 
for a few minutes. After that 1.2 per cent is the usual amount 



Fig. 413. —Alcock’s Apparatus for Giving a Known Percentage of Chloro¬ 
form Vapor. 



given. There is almost absolute safety in giving chloroform in 
this manner. The apparatus weighs 39 pounds without the foot 
treadle. That weighs 
8^ pounds. 

There are only two 
disadvantages to the va¬ 
por method of giving 
chloroform—the rather 
complicated and some¬ 
what expensive appa¬ 
ratus, and the difficulty 
in getting under and 
keeping under muscular 
and alcoholic patients. 

A preliminary hypoder¬ 
mic of morphin, one 
sixth of a grain to every 
hundred pounds of the 
patient’s weight, is an 
aid. Alcock claims that 
with his machine a 
three-per-cent vapor suf¬ 


fices for anyone. It is 
obvious that the quan¬ 
tity of vapor delivered 


Fig. 414. —Dubois’s Apparatus for Giving Known 
Percentages of Chloroform Vapor. Power 
may be supplied through the handle, A, or by the 
foot piece, B, as modified by Chapman. 















736 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


must be considered as well as its percentage, for if the vapor is 
not delivered into the inhaler fast enough to meet the full de¬ 
mand of inspiration, air will leak in around the face piece. An 
adult inspires about ten liters a minute. Alcock’s apparatus has 
a very large tube similar to that of an ordinary dental inhaler 
for gas. The tube of Gwatlnney’s apparatus is much smaller. 
This may account for the difficulty in keeping some patients 
under with it. When connected with an Esmarch inhaler, with 
a hollow rim, the inhaler can be covered with gauze and this 
with thin rubber (part of an old glove), in the center of which 
a small hole is cut to receive drops of liquid chloroform. It is 
only necessary to use the dropper in the beginning of the anes¬ 
thesia or if the patient partially comes out. 

Ho definite rules can be given for the relative amounts of ether 
and chloroform vapor to be used. An increase in the proportion 
of chloroform vapor deepens the anesthesia, while an increase in 
the proportion of ether stimulates respiration and possibly light¬ 
ens the anesthesia. One soon learns the technic of vapor anes¬ 
thesia, and also to recognize when a patient will do better under 
more or less of ether or chloroform. 

Dangers and Accidents with Chloroform. —While the 
symptoms of danger during anesthesia and the treatment therefor 
are given in the first part of this chapter, it is worth empha¬ 
sizing that the first sign of danger under chloroform is often an 
increased respiration with pallor and dilated pupils. If this first 
warning signal is neglected and the mask is kept in place, the 
danger is doubled, since the exaggerated breathing instead of free¬ 
ing the body from a poison, actually increases the amount inhaled 
and therefore absorbed. Tests have shown that it takes about one 
minute for the full effects of the inhaled chloroform to manifest 
themselves, so that one cannot be too careful to observe the early 
symptoms of danger, of which this irregularity in breathing seems 
to be the first. Free air, and if necessary vigorous artificial res¬ 
piration, are the safeguards. Other details of the treatment of 
shock during chloroform anesthesia have been given on‘page 704 
et seq. Hote also what has been said under “status lymphaticus,” 
on page 711. Brief inversion of a patient is useful to empty the 
heavy vapor out of the lungs. Alternately inverting a patient and 
then holding him upright is a powerful means of resuscitation, 



ETHYL CHLORID 


737 


and is said to have restored cardiac activity when other means 
have failed. 

When normal respiration has been restored the anesthetist must 
decide whethei to continue with chloroform or to change to ether. 
If the chloroform was given carefully and shock resulted, a change 
to ether is usually advisable. 

Ethyl Chloricl.—Ethyl chlorid, known chemically for nearly 
four hundred years, was first used as a general anesthetic in 1848. 
Its dangerous qualities were soon recognized, and it was abandoned 
for a half century. In the past ten years it has been extensively 
used, chiefly to induce anesthesia. It is a clear liquid, boiling at 
55 F., and on account of its extreme volatility it is conveniently 

sold in glass tubes in one end of which is a capillary opening fitted 
with a valve. 

When ethyl chlorid is freely inhaled unconsciousness is pro¬ 
duced with great rapidity—perhaps after three or four breaths. 
When taken more slowly the reflexes can be observed to disappear, 
the respiration deepens and there may he a slight snoring; the face 
is a little flushed, and the pupils are dilated but react to light; but 
muscular relaxation may he a little delayed. It will thus be seen 
that the symptoms resemble those of ether anesthesia, except that 
the changes occur much faster and symptoms of irritation to the 
air passages are lacking. For the sake of safety the drug should 
he given slowly so that one or two minutes elapse before uncon¬ 
sciousness is complete. The amount required for the purpose is 
from 5 to 10 ccm. when a partially open cone is employed. 

Apparatus.— Ethyl chlorid can be sprayed upon an ordinary 
Esmarch mask covered with gauze, or it may be sprayed upon a 
gauze diaphragm placed within or inserted in the side of almost 
any form of inhaler. Many of them have provision for this pur¬ 
pose. Some anesthetists break a glass pearl containing ethyl chlo¬ 
rid within the bag of a closed inhaler. This is not advisable, as 
it gives the patient a concentrated vapor at the start. It is better 
to begin with a dilute vapor and gradually increase, even though 
some ethyl chlorid is wasted. The expense is inconsiderable— 
only one half that of gas. 

When an overdose is given the respirations grow feeble, and 
after a few breaths cease altogether. The pulse continues beyond 
respiration. If the apparatus is removed and artificial respira- 




738 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


tion at once performed recovery promptly follows in most cases. 
The effect of the ethyl chlorid passes off very rapidly, so that the 
danger is slight if the anesthetist is on the watch for failing respi¬ 
ration and is quick to act. But delay of half a minute may be 
fatal. After-effects are slight. About one half of the patients 
experience nausea and vomiting, but the symptoms are of short 
duration. Cases of fatty degeneration of the solid viscera occur¬ 
ring after ethyl chlorid have been reported, h or symptoms and 
treatment see a Acid Intoxication,” page 712. 

Contraindications for the use of ethyl chlorid to induce anes¬ 
thesia are any form of obstruction of the respiratory passages, and 
weak or irregular cardiac action. Several accidents have been 
reported from its administration for tonsilectomy and other opera¬ 
tions in the throat. Its use should he restricted to induction anes¬ 
thesia and as the sole anesthetic for minor operations. If it is to 
be followed by chloroform the change should not be made directly, 
but a few breaths of ether should intervene, lest the heart suffer 
from the combined depressing effects of the two drugs. Mortality 
from its use is variously stated from one death in 200 cases up. 
to one death in 8,000 cases. 

Somnoform. —Somnoform is a combination of ethyl chlorid 
(sixty per cent), methyl chlorid (thirty-five per cent), and ethyl 
bromid (five per cent). It acts quickly, and the ethyl bromid has 
a sedative and analgesic action which is intended to prolong and 
deepen narcosis. It is said to be pleasanter to take than ethyl 
chlorid; otherwise the indications for its use, the symptoms it pro¬ 
duces, and the effects of an overdose are exactly as detailed above 
under ethyl chlorid. Several deaths from somnoform have been 
reported. 

Mixed Anesthetics. —The anesthetic sequences in common 
use have been spoken of under the different headings of this chap¬ 
ter. A few words should be said concerning mixed anesthetics. 

The best known is the A. C. E. mixture: alcohol, one volume; 

• ' 

chloroform, two volumes; and ether, three volumes. More re¬ 
cently in England the C. E. mixture is advocated, consisting of 
chloroform (two volumes) and ether (three volumes). It has been 
asserted by various advocates of mixtures that the different in¬ 
gredients volatilize equally so that their proportion always remains 
the same. Careful analyses have, however, proved what common 


HYPODERMIC ANESTHESIA 


739 


sense suspected, that the lighter drug volatilizes more rapidly, so 
that as anesthesia progresses the percentage of the heavier one 
(chloiofoim in the examples mentioned) is constantly increasing 
in the inspirations. For this reason, mixtures of dissimilar sub¬ 
stances have failed to gain any secure foothold in this country, 
and are still less likely to do so in the future. If an anesthetist 
wishes to give his patient a mixture of anesthetics he should give 
them in such a manner that he is able to regulate the quantity of 
each that he is administering. 

Hypodermic Anesthesia. —The discovery of hypodermic 
medication is credited to Wood, of Edinburgh, in 1843. In 1858 
Charles Hunter pointed out the effect upon the brain caused by 
drugs introduced subcutaneously, but the idea of so using them 
to produce general anesthesia for surgical operations was much 
longer delayed. In 1885 Corning introduced spinal anesthesia 
(often called analgesia), and the possibilities of this method and 
of Schleieh's methods of infiltration anesthesia occupied the atten¬ 
tion of investigators for fifteen vears. 

In 1900 Schneiderlin made his first tests with scopolamin- 
morphin anesthesia, using gr. and gr. ± of the two drugs. He 
employed it as a preliminary to ether or chloroform. Within a 
few years he reported nearly three thousand successful cases. 
Since 1905 the method has been extensively followed in this coun¬ 
try both as a preliminary to another anesthetic and as the sole 
anesthetic. A arious combinations of drugs have been employed 
and long discussions have been held as to their resj 3 ective merits, 
and especially in regard to the substitution of hyoscin for scopo- 
lamin. Without going further into this controversy, it may be 
safely stated that the use of hyoscin in preference to scopolamin 
has distinctly increased, so that the combination may be regarded 
as satisfactory. A tablet containing hyoscin (gr. ), morphin 
(gr. ^), and cactin (gr. yy) is extensively employed. 

When used as a preliminary to inhalation anesthesia one hypo¬ 
dermic tablet given one half hour previous is sufficient to calm 
the patient and reduce sensibility to such an extent that much less 
of the volatile anesthetic is required. If no other anesthetic is to 
be employed the injection must be repeated once, or often twice, 
and even then the operator must be prepared to tie or hold the 
patient and to turn a deaf ear to expostulation or abuse. It is 




740 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


claimed, and justly in many cases, that the patient so treated re- 
members nothing of the operation; but given in these large doses 
the drugs are distinctly dangerous, and deaths have followed 

their use. 

Cardiac or respiratory depression are to he combated by rec¬ 
tal injection of hot coffee, external heat, artificial respiration, 
forced muscular action, and gastric lavage, since the stomach 
always excretes a considerable part of drugs injected hypodermic 
ally. Permanganate of potash in a one-per-cent solution may be 
passed through the stomach tube, or given to the patient to diink. 
Pilocarpin and spirits of nitrous ether may be given to hasten 
elimination through the kidneys, and the urine should oe passed 
frequently or drawn by catheter to prevent reabsorption from the 
bladder. Recovery is to be expected even when the respiratory 
rate is very low and delirium is pronounced. The method has 
been much used in obstetrics—a single tablet of the strength men¬ 
tioned above being given in two doses. A little chloroform will 
be needed to secure muscular relaxation. If more than one such 
tablet is injected the effect upon the child is rather noticeable. 

Hypodermic anesthesia of this general character is absolutely 
unsuited for operations which only last a few minutes, for it takes 
hours for the effect of the injection to pass away. This fact is 
one of the points in its favor in operations likely to be followed 
by prolonged discomfort. Of its value in permitting the surgeon 
to dispense with the services of an anesthetist in cases of emer¬ 
gency there can be no doubt whatever, but there seems no reason 
to suppose that hypodermic anesthesia will supplant inhalation 
anesthesia until some more powerful, and at the same time, less 
dangerous drugs are discovered than those employed up to the 
present time. 

Rectal Anesthesia. —Rectal anesthesia is of advantage in 
two classes of cases. First, those in which inhalation is difficult, 
for example, in operations on the head and neck; second, those in 
which it is desired to avoid the bronchial irritation of ether. It 
is true that ether is largely excreted by the lungs, but it is then 
warmed and well diluted. Rectal anesthesia, using ether, was 
tried by Pirigoff in 1847, and has been taken up spasmodically 
many times since then. The early experimenters warmed the ether 
until it boiled and allowed the vapor to escape into the rectum. 


RECTAL ANESTHESIA 


741 


In 1905 Cunningham adopted the vapor method, forcing air 
through ether and into the rectum. 

The principles of successful anesthesia are an empty bowel, 
ether well vaporized, moderate distention of the rectum by the air 
and ether, and the escape of the air from the rectum from time to 
time. A simple apparatus consists of a rubber hand bulb such as 
is used with a thermocautery, attached to a Wolff bottle holding 
eight ounces, the outlet tube having a “ IT ’’ in it or some other 
device for catching condensed ether. Somewhere between the soft- 
rubber tube, which is passed into the rectum, and the Wolff bottle 
there is a glass “ T ” or “ Y.” To one of its openings a short 
piece of rubber tubing is fitted and clamped. From time to time 
the clamp is released to permit accumulated air and ether to 
escape from the rectum. It requires from fifteen to twenty min¬ 
utes to anesthetize a patient. Undue distention of the bowel must 
be avoided. When the outlet tube is opened every three to five 
minutes air must escape; otherwise it is an indication that the 
rectal tube is not free. The water in the wash bottle should be 
kept just below blood temperature (37° C.). Yo ether should be 
allowed to run back in the bulb. If the room is cold ether is liable 
to condense in the tube. All air and ether should be allowed to 
escape from the rectum before the tube is withdrawn. 

Hectal anesthesia is not without danger, deaths from it having 
already been reported. It has been abandoned by some of those 
who have once favored it, vapor anesthesia through the nostrils 
having taken its place in operations upon the mouth and throat. 

When it is employed the patient should first be anesthetized to 
unconsciousness in the usual manner before the rectal anesthesia 
is begun, for the latter is quite disagreeable. 

Oil-ether Method. —A method of rectal anesthesia quite 
different from the above was proposed by Gwathmey and first 
employed by him in 1913. It consists in mixing ether and a 
non-irritating oil and injecting the mixture into an empty rectum. 
Anesthesia is produced in from fifteen minutes to an hour and 
lasts, according to condition of its employment, from one to four 
or more hours. The details of this method of anesthesia are not 
as yet fully decided upon. For those who would employ it the 
following directions are given: 

Ether and liquid petrolatum (paraffin oil) are mixed in a 


742 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


bottle in the proportion of two measured ounces of the former to 
one of the latter. It is well to remember that four ounces of 
ether by weight measure nearly six fluid ounces. In estimating 
the dose required, it is safe to inject one measured ounce of ether 
for each thirty pounds of the patient’s weight. If he is alcoholic 
or robust a little more may be given. If he is anemic or weakened 
by disease even a less quantity will suffice. 

The bowel should be empty, but not irritated by repeated 
enemas. A hypodermic injection of morphin, grain to each one 
hundred pounds of body weight, should precede the rectal injec¬ 
tion of oil and ether. A rectal tube or soft rubber catheter is 
passed a couple of inches into the rectum, a glass funnel attached, 
and the oil-ether mixture administered. It feels a little hot to 
the patient, but not painful, and the sensation lasts only a few 
minutes. Sometimes there is a little involuntary straining and 
the mixture may be forced back into the funnel. On this account 
it is well to have two feet or more of rubber tubing, so that the 
pressure can be increased by raising the funnel. The fluid should 
be passed in slowly, and the flow checked from time to time. Five 
or ten minutes should be used for the injection; the patient cau¬ 
tioned against straining, and the tube withdrawn. In five minutes 
ether is noticeable on the patient’s breath and he begins to feel 
sleepy. A tow 7 el laid over the face compels a partial rebreathing 
and hastens the anesthesia. 

In half an hour, more or less, the patient is ready for opera¬ 
tion. The condition is more like a natural sleep than it is like 
a mouth anesthesia. Color is normal, breathing is not accelerated, 
pulse usually not above 80 . There is no increased flow of saliva— 
no rattling of mucus in the throat. With the light dose advocated 
above the reflexes may not be entirely lost, and with some patients 
it is necessary to give ten or twenty drops of ether on a mask 
from time to time, to get perfect muscular relaxation. Other 
patients are absolutely relaxed and remain quiet, while the re¬ 
flexes are sufficiently preserved to permit them to answer ques¬ 
tions. Others are more deeply anesthetized. The quieting effect 
of a little ether on the mask seems all out of proportion to the 
amount used—doubtless because of the ether already in the blood. 

As soon as the operation is completed, or sooner if circum¬ 
stances indicate this, the oil-ether mixture should be washed from 




SPINAL ANALGESIA 


743 


the rectum, two soft rubber tubes being provided for the purpose, 
one for the inflow of cool water and the other for the outflow. 

Rectal anesthesia by the oil-ether method is a most valuable 
discovery. The absence of respiratory irritation and the evenness 
of the anesthesia are its most striking characteristics. The pa¬ 
tient goes slowly under it, remains at about the same level for a 
long time, and regains consciousness slowly. The patients have 
less nausea and vomiting than do most of those anesthetized by 
other methods. 

Thus far it has been shown to have only two drawbacks, A 
young child or a partially anesthetized person may expel the 
mixture before anesthesia is complete, thus requiring mouth anes¬ 
thesia or a second injection. A more serious disadvantage lies 
in the difficulty of stopping the anesthetic if the patient is too 
deeply anesthetized. Washing out the rectum is only a partial 
relief. Sometimes very little of the mixture is obtained, prob¬ 
ably because it has passed too far upward. A deep unconscious¬ 
ness lasting for hours, cessation of respiration requiring artificial 
aid for several minutes, and even death have followed an overdose 
of ether administered by this method. It seems, therefore, wise 
to keep the dose so light that a little mouth administration is 
necessary, at least at the beginning of operation. In every case 
the patient should be kept under observation until the reflexes are 
thoroughly established. 

If carefully given, oil-ether rectal anesthesia saves the patient 
from fear of the anesthetic, from the feeling of suffocation, from 
respiratory irritation, from shock due to struggling, from vomit¬ 
ing during operation, and from strain on the heart or other organs, 
due to sudden changes in the amount of anesthetic administered. 

Spinal Analgesia. —This method of preparing a patient for 
operation competes with general anesthesia; at least, in operations 
below the thorax, and therefore merits consideration here. The 
technic of lumbar punctureps described on page 581. The sitting 
or “ scorcher’s ” posture is preferred to lateral decubitus by most 
operators. In stout persons, whose lumbar spines are felt with 
difficulty, it is well to remember that the third space is slightly 
above the iliac crests. The second space is better for injection 
than the third. Cocain for spinal injection has largely given place 
to stovain, tropoeocain or novococain. These drugs have an anal- 


744 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


gesic power less than cocain, but still sufficiently great in most 
cases, and poisonous symptoms following their use are less fre¬ 
quent and less severe. 

The needle is inserted with the wire in place to a depth of 
about two inches. When the wire is withdrawn clear fluid should 
escape in rapid drops. If it fails to do so a cough may bring it 
out. If this fails a further puncture may be necessary. If cloudy 
fluid is obtained the injection should he abandoned, as serious 
results have followed its use in meningitis. When fifteen or 
twenty drops have escaped the syringe is attached to the needle, 
and the solution of the drug chosen is slowly injected into the 
spinal canal. The needle is withdrawn and the opening sealed 
with collodion. Another method is to allow spinal fluid to escape 
into a glass containing the drug in dry form. As soon as it is dis¬ 
solved in the spinal fluid the whole is reinjected. 

The dose of cocain injected should not exceed one half grain, 
that of stovain or tropococain should not exceed one grain, and that 
of novococain three quarters of a grain. Ihese amounts are for 
a person weighing 150 pounds. The addition of a small amount 
of adrenalin has been tried and generally abandoned, as it in¬ 
creases headache and other had symptoms. Whatever drug is 
employed for injection, the solution should he freshly made and 
sterile. Stovain is said to stand boiling without loss of analgesic 
power. 

Unless the field of operation is above the diaphragm the patient 
should remain sitting until sensation begins to he dulled. Then 
he should carefully resume the dorsal position with head and 
shoulders slightly raised. A reversed position sends the injected 
fluid toward the brain and raises the upper margin of analgesia, 
but it also increases the chance of post-operative headache and 
nausea. These changes may or may not he due to gravity, the 
injected fluid having a higher specific gravity than that of the 
spinal fluid, which is about 1.007. 

Heat sense is first lost, then the sense of pain, while tactile 
sensation is usually not completely lost, and occasionally motor 
paralysis is observed. The patient is ready for operation in eight 
or ten minutes in most cases. 

A preliminary hypodermic injection of morphin (gr. -§) with 
atropin (gr. - 5 - 5 - 5 -) or scopolamin (gr. - 5 - 5 - 5 -) is advisable with 



CHOICE OF ANESTHETIC 


745 


nervous patients, and before operations upon the very sensitive 
tissues of the lower pelvis. 

One half or two thirds of the patients subjected to spinal 
injection suffer no serious discomfort, the operation proceeds 
smoothly, heart and lungs act normally, there is no shock and no 
post-operative symptoms attributable to the puncture, other than 
a transient nausea or a little headache. And even these slight 
symptoms may usually be avoided by a cup of tea before injection 
or a drink of coffee or wine at the close of operation, and absolute 
quiet for a couple of hours. 

About one quarter to one third of the patients (statistics differ 
so it is impossible to speak exactly) suffer from more marked 
symptoms of shock with altered respiration and pulse, or faintness, 
or repeated vomiting, or severe headache for hours, or possibly for 
days. Inability to pass urine and feces is also a fairly common 
complication. A small number of patients, estimated to be about 
one in two hundred, succumb immediately or in a day or so under 
conditions which make the death fairly attributable to the injec¬ 
tion. There are also a few patients, probably less than ten per 
cent, in whom no satisfactory analgesia develops, although all the 
conditions of injection are satisfactory. Some operators advise a 
second injection in such cases, but it is probably safer to supple¬ 
ment the injection with an inhaled anesthetic, especially as the 
amount of the latter required will be small. 

The use of spinal analgesia is especially indicated when 
patients have symptoms making inhalation anesthesia dangerous, 
such as feeble cardiac or pulmonary action, interference with free 
respiration due to goiter or other cervical tumors or swellings, 
status lymphaticus, advanced hepatic or renal disease, etc. Many 
of these patients are bad operative risks, and there will naturally 
be a higher post-operative mortality than when similar operations 
are performed on healthier persons, irrespective of the anesthetic 

employed. 

Another indication for spinal analgesia, as for hypodermic 
anesthesia, is in emergencies when a suitable anesthetic is not at 
hand. 

Choice of Anesthetic.—Much that has been written upon 
the choice of an anesthetic is absolutely worthless. For example, 
taking three recent books on anesthetics! One author ad\ises puie 


746 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


chloroform in infants, a second pure ether, and the third says it is 
not rational to choose an anesthetic according to the age of the 
patient, and then on another page, forgetting his own statement, 
says, “ as a general rule, ether should not be given to patients 
over sixty years of age.” 

There are, however, a few facts in regard to the choice of an 
anesthetic which are indisputable. The good and bad points of 
each anesthetic, such as their cost, difficulty of administration, 
tendency to irritate, etc., have been already given under the dif¬ 
ferent headings. At the risk of a certain amount of repetition 
it is well to consider here the choice of an anesthetic in different 
diseased conditions, never forgetting, however, that the choice of 
an anesthetist is far more important than the choice of an an¬ 
esthetic. 

Patients with a beard are not easily anesthetized by any 
method requiring an exact application of the mask—e. g., nitrous 
oxid, either alone or with oxygen. The difficulty can be lessened 
by smearing the face heavily with vaseline, and by allowing the 
gas to stream so freely into the face piece that it escapes under its 
edge at all times. 

Patients having partially obstructed air passages are bad sub¬ 
jects for an anesthetic (ether), which irritates the mucous mem¬ 
brane and excites the secretion of mucus, or one (gas) which 
causes cyanosis and thus a swelling of the mucous membrane, or 
one (ethyl chlorid) which is dangerous unless there is plenty of 
air mixed with it. Examples of patients in this class are those 
having nasal obstruction, patients with laryngeal or tracheal ob¬ 
struction due to condition within or pressure from outside of the 
air passages, and inflammations of the air passages—laryngitis, 
bronchitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, etc. Irritation due to ether 
can be reduced to a minimum by diluting and warming the vapor, 
and the cyanosis of nitrous oxid can be avoided by giving it with 
oxygen, so that the contraindications, are relative and not absolute. 

Nasal stenosis means that the patient must breathe through 
his mouth, so that a gag should be inserted before the anesthesia 
unless the patient objects. In that case it can be deferred until 
unconsciousness is reached. Adenoids and tonsils are rarely of 
sufficient size to obstruct respiration on account of the width of the 
nose and pharynx. It is, of course, true that patients with tuber- 


CHOICE OF ANESTHETIC 


747 


culosis of the lungs often take ether without ill effect. Some 
enthusiastic advocates of ether even speak of its curative effects 
upon pulmonary tuberculosis, but there can he no doubt that de¬ 
structive processes have been started by careless etherization of 
such patients. Whether the ether per se is at fault, or whether 
the injury is due to the excess of mucus, the chilling oHthe patient 
due to breathing a freezing vapor for a long time, or inhalation of 
vomited material, is beside the mark, unless the ether is given in 
a manner to avoid these things. 

Patients with a high blood pressure, especially if there is a 
history of apoplexy, should not he given an anesthetic which nota¬ 
bly raises blood pressure (ether by the closed method), nor should 
the anesthetic be of a character to produce coughing, straining, 
and vomiting. But these things are due more to the lack of skill 
in the anesthetist than to the chemical agent chosen. However, 
chloroform or chloroform mixtures prove very serviceable in cases 
of high blood pressure. 

Anemic patients and other patients with low blood pressure 
from shock or other causes should not be given an anesthetic 
(chloroform) which will still further lower blood pressure. This 
applies also to ethyl chlorid. A minimum of anesthetic should be 
given in these cases. Ether answers well, but nitrous oxid and 
oxygen are better. They render a great service to patients whose 
surgical complications tend to produce shock. Ether tends to dis¬ 
integrate hemoglobin, and should not be used if hemoglobin is 

less than fifty per cent of normal. 

It should be recognized that patients with heart disease are 
to be judged by the action of the heart muscle rather than by any 
murmurs which may be present. Lhey should, therefore, be di¬ 
vided for anesthetic purposes into those with high tension, those 
with low tension, and a third large group of those who ai e essen¬ 
tially normal as far as anesthesia is concerned. It is well known 
that excitable, rapid hearts often become strong and regular under 

an anesthetic. 

With patients having diseases of the liver or kidney preference 
should be given to nitrous oxid and oxygen, as ether and chloro¬ 
form both injure these organs, though in most cases temporarily. 
The occurrence of acid intoxication and fatty degeneration is more 
frequent after chloroform than after ether. These patients should 
51 


748 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


have before and after the anesthesia treatment to counteract the 
development of acid intoxication (see page 712). Spinal or hypo¬ 
dermic anesthesia should be considered with these patients. 

The status lymphaticus is a contraindication for the use of 
chloroform or ethyl chlorid, on account of the low blood pressure. 
If gas is used it should be properly diluted with oxygen to avoid 

swelling of the neck due to cyanosis. 

Although many diabetics take an anesthetic well and suffer 
no after effects, others pass into coma and die with symptoms 
similar to those of acid intoxication. This is more likely to 
happen in advanced or untreated cases. Hence a diabetic pa¬ 
tient should be given treatment for some days previous to anes¬ 
thesia in order to reduce his symptoms and improve his general 
condition. 

Anesthesia is difficult in operations upon the nose, mouth, and 
throat. If the operation is a short one the patient can be anes¬ 
thetized in the usual manner, the apparatus removed, and the 
operation performed. This is the plan followed by dentists in 
extracting teeth. It suffices for operations lasting only half a 
minute or so. Longer, operations can be performed by alternating 
the anesthetic and the operating. This method, crude as it is, is 
doubtless still employed in a large majority of such cases. It 
doubles the time of operation, entails needless hemorrhage, compels 
the patient to swallow quantities of blood, etc. To obviate these 
disadvantages various changes in technic have been tried. Rectal 
anesthesia is one of the most radical. For reasons given elsewhere 
it is not satisfactory. Vapor anesthesia can be used in these head 
cases in a number of ways. The vapor can be conducted into the 
mouth along one of the handles of a mouth gag (Fig. 415). This 
acts well in the removal of tonsils and other operations at the back 
of the mouth or in the throat. 

Another plan is to deliver the vapor of ether or chloroform 
through one, or, better, both nostrils. There are special tubes 
manufactured for this, but any soft-rubber tubes will answer, pro¬ 
vided they are large enough to fit the passages snugly to prevent 
entrance of air. But if both nostrils are occupied, provision must 
be made for expired breath in case the mouth is packed with 
gauze to prevent bleeding into the throat. 

Recently some experimenters have taken up intratracheal anes- 


CHOICE OF ANESTHETIC - " 


749 



thesia. It lias been successfully used in animal surgery for 
some time, and the tests thus far made by Elsberg and others seem 
to indicate that it may be used with equal success in man. A silk- 
elastic catheter is passed nearly to the bifurcation of the trachea. 


Fig. 415.— Miller’s Apparatus for Vapor Anesthesia. The bottle is a modified 
atomizer so that an abundance of vapor is assured. A hollow mouth gag and 
various tips for use in the nose or throat are shown. 

The anesthetic vapor is forced into the lungs in a constant stream, 
and a very slight respiratory movement on the part of the patient, 
suffices to expel it around the intratracheal tube. 

With the forms of apparatus now on the market for gi\ ing 
vapor anesthesia, chloroform vapor with a slight addition of ethei 
is probably the best to employ in operations in or about the mouth, 
with the exception perhaps of those performed tor enlarged ade¬ 
noids and tonsils, ether being safer than chloroform in the pres¬ 
ence of a marked lymphatic diathesis. In prolonged and difficult 











750 


GENERAL ANESTHESIA 


operations, say for cancer of the tongue or tonsil, hypodermic 
anesthesia offers advantages. It will sometimes give the surgeon 
a patient whose mouth is free from mucus, who does not vomit, 
whose sensibility is so reduced that he requires little or no addi¬ 
tional anesthetic, who can open his mouth or turn his head at com¬ 
mand, and who after the operation is free from shock. 


SECTION VIII 


MINOR SURGICAL TECHNIQUE 


CHAPTER XXIII 

OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 

The Conditions of Operation. —In no part of the field of 
surgery ought the results obtained to he any better than those 
obtained in minor surgery. The patient who requires treatment of 
this character, whether operative or not, is usually in good health; 
there is little shock or loss of blood to be recovered from; and 
nutrition is not disturbed by a long confinement to the bed. In 
all these respects the condition of the patient is favorable to rapid 
recovery. If the doctor’s work is of the high character which has 
justly made famous some other branches of surgery such rapid 
recovery and without complications will be assured. Yet the ease 
with which primary union is obtained in a small wound made 
upon a healthy child or young adult must not be allowed to induce 
careless methods of treatment. 

Asepsis.: —Successful surgery is clean surgery. It is easy to 
say “ the operation should be performed with due regard to the 
principles of asepsis,” and this is literally true of the smallest 
operation. But common sense tells us that while the same princi¬ 
ples underlie recovery from a prolonged laparotomy and from a 
scalp wound, much of the preparation which is essential for the 
former is unnecessary for the latter. A brief statement of the 
essentials of a clean minor operation is therefore desirable. 

The Operating-room.—The room is not an essential. Good re¬ 
sults should be obtained by the roadside, in a machine shop, or 
barn, as well as in the doctor’s office; but those who have much 
work of this sort to perform will naturally fit up a room with a 
floor of tiles or hardwood or covered with linoleum, so that it 
can be easily washed. It should have a good light, both natural 

and artificial. It should be furnished with a table foi the patient, 

751 




752 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


one or two tables for instruments and dressings, two chairs or 
stools, a case for instruments, a water-supply, an irrigator, a slop 
sink, a pan for boiling water and sterilizing instruments, and a 
steam sterilizer for dressings. Everything should be of a char¬ 
acter to make it easily cleaned. The sterilizers need not be 
elaborate. An asparagus boiler answers well for instruments, and 
an Arnold Steam Sterilizer does well for dressings. Many prefer 
to omit the latter and buy gauze ready sterilized in packages. 

Preparation of the Patient.—Usually the patient comes with¬ 
out preparation, frequently soon after a full meal. This really 
makes little difference, even if he is given a general anesthetic. 
The danger from vomiting during anesthesia is much exaggerated. 
Certainly “ aspiration pneumonia need not be greatly feared. 
If he vomits, the material should be given free exit and his mouth 
wiped out; that is all. 

The clothing should be removed from the part to be operated 
on and its vicinity. If this is not done the patient is likely to go 
away with a bloody shirt or dress. It is no excuse that the patient 
is so excited as not to notice this. The doctor ought not to be 
excited and ought to notice. One ought not to cut off clothing 
that can just as well be removed in the usual way. If its removal 
causes pain, that is another matter. 

When it can be done readily, the patient should be put in a 
horizontal position. The most stolid appearing person may faint 
unexpectedly. Many persons are ashamed to choose a horizontal 
position, consequently the choice should not be offered them. 
They will lie down readily if they think this makes it easier for 
the doctor—as it certainly does. 

While the instruments are boiling the field of operation, or 
of the wound, as the case may be, is cleansed as follows: It is 
washed with soap, absorbent cotton, and hot water; then with bi- 
chlorid of mercury, 1: 1,000; then with alcohol. If the skin is 
very greasy, turpentine or benzine or ether should precede the 
alcohol. Intact skin, if not too dirty, may simply be swabbed with 
ether, or painted with tincture of iodin or 6 per cent picric acid 
in alcohol. 

The wound, if one exists, or the delicate membranes, such as the 
lining of the eye, should be irrigated with one per cent saline solu¬ 
tion, and foreign material dislodged by gentle washing with cotton. 


ASEPSIS 


753 


The vicinity of the operation should then he covered with 
sterile gauze or with towels wrung out of 1: 1,000 bichlorid solu¬ 
tion. Another such towel or gauze should be spread on a small 
table for the instruments, sutures, or dressings. Whenever it is 
possible to do so, the instruments should he prepared out of 
sight and hearing of the patient and before he is brought to the 
operating table. This will avoid delay and the unpleasant sug¬ 
gestions made by the rattling of instruments. 

The Operator’s Hands.—The operator next prepares his own 
hands by (a) washing them with soap and water, and then with 
a mixture of washing soda and chlorid of lime, freshly rubbed 
together with a little water in the palm of the hand, and rinsed 
off with sterile water or bichlorid solution; or (5) he pulls on 
rubber gloves which have been previously sterilized or which he 
washes off carefully in the bichlorid solution after he has put 
them on. The smooth surface of a rubber glove can he quickly 
freed from germs in this manner, whereas it is a long and tedious 
process to render sterile the crevices in the skin and about the 
nails; or (c) having washed his hands with soap and water, and 
having dried them, he keeps them absolutely out of the wound, 
touching only the handles of the instruments or the ends of 
sutures and ligatures which will not again pass through the tis¬ 
sues nor remain in the wound. This last method is the quickest of 
all and with a little practise it is absolutely reliable for the ligation 
of vessels, suture of traumatic wounds, removal of some foreign 
bodies, etc. It is not suitable for cases in which the diagnosis is 
obscure or in which blunt or difficult dissection may be required. 

The Instruments and Solutions.—The instruments should he 
put on to boil during the preparation of the field of operation 
and the operator’s hands. They should be boiled in plain water. 
Soda is unnecessary unless the water of the locality contains some 
ingredients which are injurious to metals. Five minutes’ boiling 
is sufficient. The water should then he poured from the pan in 
which they were boiled, and the instruments may he turned out 
on a piece of sterile gauze or allowed to lie in the bottom of the 
pan or tray for use. One scalpel, a curved blunt pointed scissors, 
plain and mouse toothed forceps, a probe, two small sharp re¬ 
tractors, two or four artery clamps, four small needles, straight 
and curved, and a hypodermic syringe and needle are instruments 


754 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


sufficient for most minor surgical operations. Soda makes them 
slippery. If handled in accordance with the directions given 
above they will not rust appreciably. If they are wrapped up in 
a wet towel and allowed to cool they may become covered with 
rust in a few minutes. 

There should he at hand two basins, one to contain the solu¬ 
tion of bichlorid or whatever antiseptic is employed; one to contain 
the one per cent saline solution. One of these basins may he used 
for the soap and water with which the patient is prepared. 

Local Anesthesia.* —The anesthesia of the operative field 
is of great importance. The first prick of the needle is or ought 
to he the only part of many minor operations of which the patient 
has direct knowledge. Yet this is seldom the case, because the 
operator is unwilling to wait for the cocain or other anesthetic 
to take effect, hut proceeds with the incision almost immediately. 
Dilute solutions of cocain, one or at most two per cent, are safer 
and better in most cases. An exception should he made in the 
case of small boils in an inelastic skin, for example, of the nose. 
The additional distention caused by the injection is very painful. 
Hence the solution should be strong (four per cent), and only a 
drop or two employed. The solution is best when freshly made. 
A quarter grain hypodermic tablet of cocain dissolved in twenty- 
five minims of sterile water makes a one per cent solution. 

The method of injection is important. The needle should be 
small and sharp. If the skin is normal, one naturally makes a 
small injection at one end of the future incision, either in the 
skin, or if the skin is thin, beneath it. An injection made into 
the skin raises a small wheal, possibly half an inch in diameter 
(Fig. 410, 1). About thirty seconds later a second puncture 
of the needle is made in the far edge of this wheal, and a second 
injection is made (Fig. 410, 2); then a third puncture, and so 
on. By using a long needle one can inject to a greater distance 
with one puncture, but this requires a needle of larger caliber. If 
the injection is made under the skin the resulting swelling is 
larger and more diffuse—with less distinct edges. 

Anesthesia should be tested by the point of the needle. The 
incision should not be made until all feeling of pain has disap- 


* This word should really be analgesia but it is too well known now to be changed. 







LOCAL ANESTHESIA 


755 


peared. If a finger or toe is the subject of operation, circulation 
should be controlled by a bandage or rubber tube drawn tightly 
around it; anesthesia will then be complete and more lasting with 
a smaller amount of cocain. 

Cocain is a poisonous drug, especially when injected into the 
head, though why its effects should be so marked there it is diffi- 



Fig. 416 — Injection of Cocain for Local Anesthesia. 1 , the wheal caused by the 
first injection into (not under) the skin; 2 , the wheal due to the second injection 
into the skin. The needle for this injection is inserted in the edge of the area 
already anesthetized. It is shown in the correct position for the second injec¬ 
tion. An injection under the skin (subcutaneous strictly speaking) gives a dif¬ 
fuse swelling. 

cult to explain. Many an attack of supposed faintness during 
a minor operation* is really an instance of acute cocain poisoning. 




756 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


For this reason the dose should be restricted to one-quarter of a 
grain if possible. 

If an abscess is to be opened, the method of procedure should 
be slightly different. Injection should be commenced in the rela¬ 
tively normal and elastic skin near one end of the incision to be. 
From this puncture others should be made, each nearer the center 
of the skin overlying the abscess. Then, instead of continuing 
across this much distended portion of the skin, it is better to begin 
at the opposite margin and again approach the center. In this 
manner anesthesia is accomplished with the least pain. 

A number of substitutes for cocain have been tested out in the 
hope that one might be found, less poisonous than cocain, but equal 
to it in power. Perhaps the best is procain (novocain). It is not 
as poisonous as cocain but its anesthetic power is less, and only 
lasts a few minutes after injection; but this drawback is partly 
overcome by the addition of epinephrin (adrenalin). The two 
drugs come in a hypodermic tablet, or they may be dissolved in 
boiling water for use, in the proportion of 1 grain of procain, 
6 minims of epinephrin, and 3 drams of water. This gives a 
solution slightly above one half per cent. 

Regional Anesthesia. —The sensory nerves which supply the 
site of an operation, may be benumbed by drugs injected into the 
tissues through which they pass. This is called regional anes¬ 
thesia, or nerve block. The injection may be made near the 
operative field or in the vicinity of the nerve trunk; anywhere 
outside of the skull or spinal column, or even within these bony 
cavities, provided it is not made within the dura. If made within 
the dura, the term spinal anesthesia is employed. 

The technic of regional anesthesia differs from that of local 
anesthesia in two respects. The injection is not made into the 
skin, but at a greater depth, varying according to the situation of 
the nerve in question. Hence, a long, though slender, needle is 
employed. The amount of fluid injected is much greater than that 
used for local anesthesia. It varies from one or two drams to an 
ounce or more. Hence, it is necessary that the solution should be 
very dilute. To get the best results from regional anesthesia, one 
must have an accurate knowledge of the anatomical relations of 
the nerve trunks. 

The anesthetic usually employed is procain in a one half or one 





Fig. 417.— Method of 


Tying Ligatures. For description see page 758, 








758 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


per cent solution, mixed with a little epinephrin, as mentioned 
under local anesthesia. Rabat, who has devoted much time to this 
subject and has written a book upon it, advises a hypodermic of 
morphin gr. y 6 and scopalomin gr. y 30 an hour before operation; 
this dose to be repeated fifteen minutes before operation, if the 
patient is not mentally hazy by that time. He uses a one per cent 
solution of procain with epinephrin, but not more than 15 or 20 
drops of the 1: 1,000 solution of the latter in any case. 

Spinal Anesthesia.—Directions for entering the spinal eanal 
are given under Lumbar Puncture on page 797. While the needle 
is still in place, one may inject through it the anesthetic dissolved 
in sterile water, or in the spinal fluid which has been withdrawn. 
The utmost aseptic precautions should be observed throughout, 
Oocain, stovain and procain have all been used many times with 
success. The earlier practice was to withdraw and discard a cer¬ 
tain amount of spinal fluid, say 20 or 30 minims, and to inject 
an equal amount of sterile water containing the anesthetic. An 
improvement in technic consists in sterilizing the anesthetic by 
dissolving it in ether and evaporating it to dryness; placing it in 
the barrel of the glass syringe attached to the puncturing needle, 
withdrawing into the syringe enough spinal fluid to dissolve the 
anesthetic, and re-injecting it into the spinal canal. 

The needle should be left in place until numbness has devel¬ 
oped to a sufficiently high level for the prospective operation. If 
in fifteen minutes this is not accomplished, a little more anesthetic 
may be used. The proportions of procain and epinephrin to be 
injected are given under Regional Anesthesia. 

Spinal anesthesia may be satisfactorily employed for operation 
on any portion of the body below the axillae. 

Control of Hemorrhage.—Assistance is usually limited or 
absent, so that the minor surgeon should control hemorrhage 
promptly by clamp or ligature. One likes to keep catgut out of 
these wounds, not because the catgut is unsterile, but because there 
may be a few germs in the wound for which the catgut will be an 
excellent nutrient medium. Yet if a vessel bleeds freely it had 
better be tied. A general oozing may be checked by ^applica¬ 
tion of a swab of cotton wet with a solution of adrenalin chlorid 
1:5,000. ’ 

Tying a Ligature—Two points are essential to a good method: 


DRAINING A WOUND 


759 


The operator should have a continuous grasp of both ends of the 
ligature. That means that he shall never let go of either end until 
he has secured a fresh hold upon it in another place. The second 
point follows from the first, namely, that he shall be able to tie 
the ligature without looking at it. He will then not be delayed if 
the light is poor or the thread becomes covered with blood. One 
of the best methods is as follows: 

Take a piece of catgut eighteen inches or two feet long. Pass 
it around the artery clamp, and hold both ends firmly with the 
middle, ring, and little fingers, leaving the thumb and index- 
fingers free below the threads. The palms are upward (Fig. 
417, 1). Pass the right index-finger over the left string (£), 
and bring it back under the left string, and poke the end of the 
finger under the right string in the space between the right thumb 
and middle finger (5). Straighten the index-finger, thus bring¬ 
ing a loop of the right string up between the index-finger and the 
thumb (4). Seize this thread between the thumb and index-finger 
(5), and relax the grasp upon it by the other fingers. Withdraw 
the thumb and index-finger to the right and a crochet stitch has 
been made by the right string upon the left (d). Pull this clear 
through, and it becomes a half hitch, and can be drawn down 
tight. A second and a third can be made in the same manner; 
or if the operator fears a “granny knot,” a perfectly groundless 
fear by the way, the process can be reversed for the second loop, 
and the right string held taut, while the left forefinger makes the 
half hitch. 

Draining’ a AATound.—If a wound is almost certainly clean 
and hemorrhage has been controlled, the skin should be sutured 
without drainage. Such is or ought to be the case with most of 
the wounds made by the' operator for non-suppurative con¬ 
ditions. It is also the case with many traumatic wounds. A 
wound should not be condemned because it contains coal-dust, saw¬ 
dust, and other kinds of dirt which are incapable of sustaining 
bacteria pathogenic to man. These foreign bodies can be removed, 
and even if some particles remain primary union is not imprac¬ 
ticable. 

If a wound has been made by a butcher’s knife, or by a stable 
fork, or in a machine-shop, where animal fats are used as lubri¬ 
cants, the possibility of suppuration is far greater. In such cases, 


760 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


as well as in ragged wounds and other wounds in which oozing 
of blood seems probable, a drain should be employed. This drain, 
while keeping open a way for the escape of fluid, must be so 
placed and must be of such a character that it is easily removed 
and leaves a minimum of gaping of the suture line. Usually 
the wound in such a case should be fully sutured, but the inter¬ 
rupted stitches employed should not be too close, and the drain 



I ig. 418. Drains for Clean and Suppurating Wounds. A, Flat gutta-percha 
drain folded on a probe ready for insertion; B, a piece of gutta-percha tissue of 
the same size as A; C, horsehair drain; D, soft rubber tubes of various sizes; E, 
cigarette drain of gauze in a rubber finger cot; F, cigarette drain of gauze and 
gutta-percha tissue. At the right, a piece of gutta-percha tissue and a piece of 
gauze each the size of those from which the drain, F, was made. 

should be so small as to lie readily between two stitches. A flat 
stup of gutta-peicha tissue, one inch wide and three inches long, 
twice folded on itself, so that it shall be only one-quarter of an 
inch wide, answers the requirements admirably. It can then be 
doubled and pushed in by a flat probe (Fig. 418). As the probe 
is withdrawn it should be rotated to free it from the tissue, 
which may otherwise stick to it and be pulled out of the wound. 
A bundle of horsehairs, twisted, tied, and doubled on itself, makes 
another good drain. It is stiff enough to insert without a probe. 











SUTURING 


761 


If either of these drains is removed in two days there will be 
so little additional granulation in its site that the scar is not 
visibly increased thereby. Hence a small drain should be em¬ 
ployed in doubtful cases; for if fluid is allowed to collect in the 
wound, and has afterward to he evacuated, the resulting scar will 
be greater than when a drain of this character is employed. 

In a third class of cases suppuration exists, and drainage is 
used to provide for the escape of pus. A great mistake is made 
in the use of dry gauze in such cases. The very fact that the 
wound is small and the discharge slight adds to the risk. The 
pus soaks into the drain, dries on its outside, and seals up the 
wound with a tough and impervious glue. The abscess cavity 
is reestablished, the bacteria flourish, and the patient suffers. 
Over and over again I have seen patients so treated come back 
with a more extensive cellulitis than when the abscess was first 
opened. For a few hours they had relief due to the evacuation 
of the pus, then drainage ceased and symptoms recurred. It 
makes no difference whether or not the gauze is impregnated with 
some antiseptic; drainage is a question of physics not of chem¬ 
istry. 

There are two ways to insure perfect drainage in a small sup¬ 
purating wound: One is to use a material for drainage which will 
not adhere to the wound, such as gutta-percha or rubber; and 
the other is to keep the wound moist. A flat gutta-percha drain 
of appropriate size may be used; or if it is desired to keep the 
edges of the wound further apart the gutta-percha tissue may be 
loosely wrapped around a wick of gauze—the so-called “cigarette 
drain” (Fig. 418). A rubber finger cot, from which the tip 
has been cut, makes an excellent sheath for the wick of gauze. 
In a few cases rubber tubes are used as drains, either because a 
large flow of pus is anticipated, or because it is desirable to main¬ 
tain an opening of a fixed size. A soft rubber catheter makes a 
good drain in these cases. Its rounded end facilitates its insertion 
in subsequent dressings. 

Suturing*. —The wounds after minor operations are best closed 
by interrupted stitches or a subcuticular suture. The saving of 
time by the employment of a continuous suture of the skin has 
little value compared with the desirability of accurate approxi- 
mation of the edges of the skin in exposed portions of the body, 


762 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


and this is more easily obtained by one of the methods above 
mentioned. 

The interrupted suture is too well known to need description, 
but it is not always employed to the best advantage. To obtain 
a minimum of scar the sutures should not be too tightly drawn; 
they should be equally deep on both sides of the incision; they 
should be of very fine thread or horsehair, and they should be 
removed in two or four days. To say that a stitch is equally 
deep in both edges of the wound means that the vertical distance 
from the surface of the skin to the point where the needle entered 
or emerged from the cut surface is the same on both surfaces of 
the wound. If this is not the same on both sides, one edge of the 
skin will lie above the other, and the scar will be proportionately 
increased. 

Black sewing silk, fine cotton thread, and horsehair are all good 
materials for skin sutures. They are flexible, non-irritating and 
cheap. They can be threaded through fine needles and dry ster¬ 
ilized and kept ready for use, or boiled with the instruments. 

Fine white cotton thread, No. 100 or No. 150, is the most 
serviceable material for an interrupted suture of small skin 
wounds. It is stronger than silk of equal size and more flexible 
than horsehair; and is more easily tied than either. Moreover, it 
is found in every household. 

To get the best results one should have fine needles as well as 
fine thread. Most surgical needles are so coarse that they leave a 
permanent scar. Ordinary sewing needles, with their polished 
round points, are passed with difficulty, and should only be used in 
emergency. The ideal needle for small skin wounds is a No. 8 
glover’s needle. Its three-sided sharp point, made for stitching 
leather, pierces the skin with ease and with very little pain, and 
leaves no scar. As it is difficult to thread such fine needles when 
wet, they should be threaded dry with pieces of cotton about two 
feet long. Two or three such threads can be wound around a gauze 
sponge, the needles caught in one side of it, and the sponge 
wrapped up in a piece of muslin, and sterilized in a steam 
sterilizer. If the packages are dried out promptly, either inside 
or outside the sterilizer, the needles are not likely to rust. Such 
a package in the doctor’s bag, is very handy in accident cases, 
as well as for office use (Fig. 419). 


GLOVER’S NEEDLES 


763 


Glover’s needles are straight, but one can be easily bent at an 
angle by holding it with two clamps over an alcohol lamp or a 



Fig. 419. —Glover’s Needles No. 8 Threaded with No. 150 Cotton Before 


and After Sterilization. 



A 

Fig. 420. —A Straight 
Alcohol Lamp or 


B C 

Clover's Needle ( A ), Held by Two Clamps Over an 
;ven a Candle ( B ), Quickly Turns Red, and is Easily 


Bent or Curved (C). 


candle. As soon as it turns red, it can be bent at any desired 
angle (420). It can then be used like a curved needle within the 
mouth or other cavities, or in stitching unyielding skin, like some 
scalps. In most situations the straight needle is preferable. 












764 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 



Sutures to be boiled should be secured in a strip of muslin by 
catching up a bit of cloth in three or four places (Fig. 421). 

As stated above, the strain upon a suture should be kept at a 
minimum in order to avoid a scar due to the stitches cutting 
through the skin; yet there are some 
instances in which tension is neces¬ 
sary to bring together the edges of 
a wound. This should be relieved 
by undermining the skin for some 
distance, and by distributing the 
strain through a large number of 
fine stitches. It is well to know how 
to insert a suture under such cir¬ 
cumstances if no assistant is at hand 
to prevent the first knot from slip¬ 
ping. 

To tie a knot under tension of 
the tissues, make two half hitches 
with one end, holding the other taut. 

While still keeping the second end 
taut, slide the half hitches down 
snugly upon the tissue to be tied. 

They will always remain in place 
temporarily. How hold the first 
end taut, and loop the second end 
once about it. Slide this half hitch 
down upon the two already in place. 

This makes the knot permanent. 

Neither end can slip on the other, 
since each makes a loop about the 
other. 

The subcuticular suture is an ex¬ 
cellent one for exposed portions of 
the body, especially when the possi¬ 
ble strain on the wound makes it 
desirable to leave the suture in place 
more than four days. It should be 
of strong horsehair or silkworm gut. Both materials can be 
boiled without injury. The insertion of the suture is much fa- 


Fig. 421. —Fine Black Silk and 
Horsehair Threaded in 
Straight and Curved Skin 
Needles. The needles at the 
right with bent points are espe¬ 
cially good for subcuticular su¬ 
tures. 




















DRESSINGS 


765 


cilitated by the use of a Hagedorn needle with a bent point, as 
suggested by Dawbarn (Fig. 420, the needles on the right). If 
one has an assistant he inserts a sharp hook or one prong of the 
retractor in each end of the wound, and pulls steadily. This fixes 
the skin edges so that the operator can easily pass the needle into 
and out of one skin edge and then the other. It makes little 
difference whether these “bites” of the skin are wholly within 
the skin (intracuticular) or partly beneath it (subcuticular). 
They should be placed close together to prevent gaping of the skin. 
At the beginning and end of the suture, the thread comes to the 
surface, where it is secured by pinching a split shot upon it. 1 lie 
skin should be slightly puckered along the suture. At the end of 
five or seven days the suture will be loose in the skin. One shot 
is then cut off and the suture is pulled out. The shot are not 
indispensable. A large knot in the suture answers the same pur¬ 
pose, or it may be tied around a bit of gauze. 

Minute clawlike metallic hooks are sometimes used upon sen¬ 
sitive patients in place of sutures, to close traumatic wounds. 

Dressings for Wounds. —There are four dressings which 
are especially adapted to use upon small wounds, viz., the dry 
gauze dressing, the cotton collodion dressing, the wet dressing, and 
the dressing with ointment. 

Dry Gauze Dressing.—This consists of a piece of sterile gauze 
folded several times so as to have from four to twenty thicknesses. 
It need not extend more than half an inch beyond the wound in 
any direction. For a sutured incision it need not be wider than fho 
finger. It is held in place by strips of adhesive plaster, which are 
so applied that they hold together the edges of the wound and take 
some of the tension from the sutures. These strips should be 
separated by a little distance, so that evaporation may not be 
interfered with. The whole dressing may be bandaged in position, 
to give greater security. 

When the tension upon a suture of the skin is slight, for 
example, when the wound is closed in layers, or tension sutures are 
used, plain catgut, No. 1 or No. 2, is most satisfactory for the sub¬ 
cuticular suture. It lasts long enough to insure fixation of the 
skin, as it is not absorbed for five days or more; and it does not 
have to be removed, a point in its favor that most patients will 

appreciate. 

The dry gauze dressing is suited to sutured wounds, whether 


766 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


traumatic or operative. It should not be applied to raw surfaces 
nor to suppurative wounds. 

Cotton-Collodion Dressing. —This is a convenient form of dress¬ 
ing for very small aseptic wounds, especially when they are so 
placed that adhesive strips will not adhere, or they or a bandage 
are unnecessarily disfiguring. This is true of many wounds of the 
scalp and face. The dressing is applied as follows: All oozing 
from the wound is stopped. If necessary to accomplish this, a dry 
gauze dressing and bandage are first applied for a few minutes. A 
wisp of dry absorbent cotton is then laid across the wound, and 
the free ends of the fibers are painted from the center with a 
camel’s-hair brush and flexible collodion. When they have been 
firmly pasted to the skin, the surplus cotton is picked away, a few 
threads at a time, until just enough remains to cover the wound. 
The free ends of this wisp and both sides are then pasted to the 
skin by sweeps of the brush from the center outward. If the dress¬ 
ing is too thin or stains through, a second wisp of cotton may be 
applied over the first. The cotton in contact with the wound 
should never be saturated with collodion, but should always be dry 
when applied so that it may absorb a few drops of blood readily, 
as otherwise these will work their way out to the edge, thereby 
loosening the dressing. 

Wet Dressing —A wet dressing, for use upon raw and granu¬ 
lating surfaces and over suppurating wounds, consists of a pad of 
absorbent gauze of suitable size, moistened by some antiseptic solu¬ 
tion, and held in place by a gauze bandage. The antiseptic is not 
for the purpose of killing germs in the wound, but to prevent 
irritating and foul smelling fermentation in the discharge. Hence 
it need not be a strong one. Creolin 1: 200, or biclilorid 1: 5,000, 
or borolyptol 1: 8 are all satisfactory solutions for the purpose. 
The dressing should be moistened with water everv few hours. 
This is better than covering the dressing with an oiled silk or 
rubber protective, which macerates the skin unnecessarily. 

The Carrel’Dakin Treatment is a form of continuous irri¬ 
gation of infected wounds which played a brilliant part in the 
surgery of the recent European war. The aim of this treatment, 
like that of many other antiseptic treatments since the time of Lis¬ 
ter, is to destroy the bacteria while not injuring the living tissues. 
This is a delicate discrimination, as both are protoplasmic cells. 


CARREL-DAKIN TREATMENT 


767 


After much experiment Dakin settled upon a neutral hyper- 
chlorite of soda, freshly made, as best adapted to the purpose. It 
loses its power rapidly and, lienee, the fluid in the wound should be 
renewed every two hours. Foreign material and damaged tissue, 
and deep recesses in a wound all favor bacterial multiplication, 
and make less certain continuous contact of the fresh solution. It 
is therefore most important to lay open all pockets, and to remove 
all foreign material, and to /trim away all torn flesh, so that the 
walls of the wound may he smooth and every part accessible. 
Small rubber tubes are placed in various portions of the wound, 
not to drain pus outward, but to convey fresh fluid every two hours 
to every part of the wound. Excess solution coming from the 
wound is absorbed in layers of sterile gauze and cotton. Strips 
of gauze, saturated with petrolatum, are laid upon the surrounding 
skin to protect it from irritation. 

The dressing is changed every day, but the tubes need not be 
removed. Two or three times a week, smears are made from 
different parts of the wound, and the bacteria are counted. When 
they fall to five, or less, in a microscopic field, it is safe to discon¬ 
tinue irrigation and to close the wound by a few sutures. It is 
carefully watched and if inflammation reappears, the antiseptic 
treatment is resumed. In only a small percentage of cases is this 
necessary. 

The period of treatment varies with the individual and the 
character of the wound. Simple wounds may be sterilized in a 
week or ten days. Compound fractures and other complicated 
wounds may require as many weeks before they are ready for 
closing. 

The solution is made as follows: 230 grams of active chlorid 
of lime are put into 5 liters of tap water, shaken vigorously, and 
allowed to stand over night. One hundred and fifteen grams of 
anhydrous carbonate of soda, and 9b grams of bicarbonate of soda 
are dissolved in 5 liters of tap water. The 10 liters are mixed and 
shaken and allowed to stand for an hour. I hen the cleai fluid is 
siphoned off, filtered, and slightly colored with a few crystals of 
permanganate of potash, for identification. This gives a neutral 
solution of the hypochlorite of soda, of .47.) per cent. It should 
be made fresh daily, and protected from the light. 

To get the best results from Carrel-Dakin treatment, all the 


768 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


details of treatment have to be carried out most exactly. Other- 

«/ 

wise the wounds are not sterilized, and the results are only such as 
might be obtained with good drainage and any suitable wet dress¬ 
ing. Nor do solutions made from tablets of dichloramine-T and 
similar substances have the same effect as freshly made solution 
according to the formula given. 

Dressing with Ointment. —Sometimes it is desirable to favor 
the discharge from a wound, and the conditions are not favorable 
for applying a wet dressing and keeping it wet. A patient may 
have a boil inside of his nose; or on his neck or other part of the 
body where a wet dressing would come in contact with his clothing; 
or he may have to be out of doors in very cold weather. In these 
and other circumstances, an ointment dressing upon a suppurating 
wound has the advantages of a wet dressing, and is more com¬ 
fortable. The usual method of application is to spread a thick 
layer of a boric or ichthyol or other ointment on a pad of gauze, 
a little larger than the wounded and inflamed area, to apply this 
directly to the skin, and to hold it in place with a bandage. Oiled 
silk or rubber tissue are not needed unless to protect the clothing. 
If used, they should not be larger than the square of gauze, lest 
undue maceration be produced. If the wounded area is small, and 
it is desirable to avoid a bandage, the dressing may be held in 
place by strips of adhesive; or, if it is very small, a single square 
or circle of adhesive may be used. In this case the adhesive must 
extend beyond the gauze, at least a quarter inch on all sides. 

Paraffin Wax resembles an ointment but its melting point 
is about 120° F., so that it is solid at ordinary temperatures. It 
was originated by De Sandfordt, in China about 1900, as a 
dressing for burns, but its adoption has been slow, partly because 
he kept the formula secret, and the commercial preparation, called 
ambrine, was expensive, and partly because the dressing is not 
easily applied unless one has at hand an atomizer which can be 
kept at a required temperature of about 150° F. (Fig. 422). 

Numerous mixtures have been made and tried. A satisfactory 
one is that recommended by Behney, and composed of white resin 
3 parts; yellow beeswax 10 parts ; and paraffin with a melting point 
of 102° F. 87 parts. The resin is melted slowly, the wax added 
and then the paraffin. When all is clear, the mixture is strained 
through gauze and poured into sterile pans to cool. The ingre- 


PARAFFIN WAX 


769 


clients should be free from sulphuric and organic acids. A little 
resorcin, oil ol eucalyptus or beta naphthol may be added to stimu¬ 
late repair and keep down bad odors, for under the wax shell which 
seals up the burn, bacteria thrive in countless millions. So also 
do the tissue cells thrive, and granulation and epithelization go 
on with a rapidity which is often surprising. 



Fig 422.—Sherman’s Paraffin Atomizer, for Use in Burns. 


Sherman has treated nearly 40,000 employees of steel plants 
by this method, of whom over 5,000 had burns of the third or 
fourth degrees. He is absolutely convinced of its superiority. His 
rules for treatment are as follows: 

1. Cut off or remove clothing. Puncture but do not remove 
blebs. Use no antiseptics or cleansing solutions. 

2. Dry the surface with an electric blower, or electric fan, or 
common fan. 

3. Spray the whole wound and an inch of sound skin with the 
wax heated to 150° F., and kept hot meanwhile with a water 








770 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


jacket (Fig. 422), or a double boiler. It can be put on with a 
caineFs hair brush but not so evenly nor so painlessly. 

4. A thin layer of absorbent cotton is laid over the wound, and 
saturated with another spraying of hot wax. 

5. The dressing should be changed daily. The wax hardens 
into a shell which is readily lifted off, leaving the surface bathed 
with lymph, pus and possibly necrotic tissue. The odor for a few 
days may be very offensive. The wound should be cleansed by 
gentle swabbing or, better, by spraying with normal saline, or 
boric acid solution. 

6. Deep burns after sloughs have come away should be steril¬ 
ized by the Carrel-Dakin method, and skin-grafted early. 

7. Granulations should never be cut down either mechanically 
or with caustics. Under the wax treatment the epithelium grows 
over them without difficulty. 

Forceps Dressing. — The method of dressing a wound 
without touching it with the fingers is well worth practicing. In 
the case of recent and clean wounds, it reduces the risk of infec¬ 
tion to a minimum, and in redressing of infected wounds, it avoids 
contamination of the doctor’s hands. If it is good form to eat a 
dinner with knife, fork and spoon, without touching the food with 
the fingers; if the worker in a pathological laboratory, inoculates 
cultures, makes smears, and stains slides, without contaminating 
the cultures or staining his fingers, it should not be too much 
trouble to handle a wound in the same safe way. The principle 
is simply this: Touch the wound only with sterile instruments 
or materials. 

For the ordinary dressing one requires only a thumb forceps, 
clamp and scissors. They should be freshly sterilized. If it 
becomes necessary to lay them down, they should rest on a sterile 
surface of gauze, towel or instrument tray. If their working ends 
become contaminated, they should be resterilized. It is sufficient 
to dip the points into boiling water, while the handles are still 
held. 

Swabs or sponges should be picked up with the instruments 
and not with the fingers. In the case of infected wounds, if one 
is using wet swabs, it is permissible to squeeze these partly dry 
with the hand, since here the protection is directed toward the 
doctor rather than toward the patient. If wet swabs are used 


OPENING AN ABSCESS 


771 


upon a clean wound, they may be wrung out in a towel. However 
used, they should not he touched by the doctor’s fingers. 

Even sutures can he readily introduced by this forceps tech¬ 
nic. The needle is passed with clamp and caught with forceps. 
The thread is cut before tying, so that there shall be a few inches 
of thread on each side of the wound. When as manv sutures as 

4 / 

are needed have been inserted in this manner, they may he tied 
one after the other. This may be safely done with the unsterile 
fingers, provided only the ends of the sutures are touched. To hold 
the first knot of the suture without slipping, one may employ the 
double turn of a surgeon’s knot, or an assistant may hold the 
first knot with sterile forceps while the second knot is brought 
down upon it. 

Other forms of dressing for use upon ulcerating surfaces, etc., 
are described in the treatment of these special lesions in the earlier 
chapters of the book. 

Opening 1 an Abscess. —In opening an abscess it is important 
to make the incision through the best point for drainage; to make 
it of the proper length, neither too long nor too short, and to spare 
the patient unnecessary pain. In some cases the site and length 
of the incision can be determined by inspection and palpation. 
The appearance of the skin often indicates where the pus is trying 
to work its way to the surface. In other cases palpation will 
determine this. The center of a large collection of pus near the 
surface is softer than the indurated periphery, whereas the reverse 
is true of a small collection of pus in an area of cellulitis. Then 
the purulent focus feels more resistant than the surrounding 
tissues. One can sometimes infer the length of incision necessary 
from the extent of the swelling. Such an inference is often unre¬ 
liable, and it is quite unnecessary to depend on it, since the decision 
can be made more safely as soon as the abscess cavity has been 
cut into. 

The direction of the incision should be determined by the 
presence of important structures in the vicinity, which may overlie 
the abscess to be drained. If the pus is more superficial so that 
only skm and fascia have to be divided, the character of the 
resulting scar is the determining factor. Thus, supeificial sup 
puration about a joint, should generally be drained through a 
transverse incision, to avoid the contraction of a longitudinal scar. 


772 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


An incision below the jaw or above the clavicle, should run parallel 
to the bone. One in front of the ear should be vertical; and so 
forth. On account of disfigurement, crucial incisions should bo 
avoided when possible, and particularly upon exposed portions 
of the body. 

The proper method of anesthetizing the skin overlying an ab¬ 
scess has been described on page 754. If the abscess is small, a 
spray of ethyl chlorid may be used to freeze it. This is less 
satisfactory than cocain, since the sensation returns so quickly 
that the patient suffers intensely for a few minutes. Ethyl chlorid 
used to benumb the site of the first injection of cocain is satis¬ 
factory. 

When the skin has been anesthetized, a fine pointed scalpel is 
thrust directly into the abscess. The short incision thus made is 
then extended in one or both directions, according to the extent of 
the cavity of the abscess and the importance of the structures which 
will have to be divided. It is a safe plan to make the incision 
equal in length to the diameter of the cavity of the abscess. In 
case of a small abscess it should be a little longer, and in case of a 
large abscess is need not be so long. It is well to remember that 
the edematous skin will shrink after the abscess is opened, so that 
an incision an inch long at the time it is made, may be only half 
an inch long the next day. 

The full length of the incision should be maintained by drains 
or gauze packing for several days. It is an exhibition of bad 
judgment to open an abscess by a two-incli incision and sew up 
half of it or allow it to close at once by granulations. It is another 
matter if one needs the extra cut in order to search for a foreign 
body or to explore some deep recess—we are here speaking of 
minor surgery. When granulations form, the drain may be rapidly 
shortened. 

As soon as an abscess cavity is opened freely the pus will 
escape. Squeezing the tissues to hurry it up does no good, and 
may do harm. Irrigation with saline solution or a very mild 
antiseptic does not irritate the tissues and will keep the dressing 
from being at once soaked full of pus. 

Removal of a Tumor. —Suppose the skin to have been 
cleansed and the line of incision rendered painless by injections 
of a local anesthetic as previously described. If a portion of skin 


SKIN GRAFTING 


773 


is to be removed, the exact incision should be marked out with 
a scalpel. After the skin has been cut through retraction takes 
place, which may make it difficult to determine just how much 
should be removed. If the incision is linear, this precaution is 
unnecessary. The knife blade should be in a plane perpendicular 
to the surface. A beveled incision is not usually desirable. The 
entire thickness of the skin should be divided throughout the whole 
line of incision before any attempt is made to reflect the flaps. If 
the tumor is in the skin, it is next lifted up, and the tissue at its 
base divided; vessels are ligated, the edges of the skin freed from 
the deeper tissues for a sufficient distance to permit them to be 
brought together without undue strain, and the sutures inserted. 

This dissection of the flaps is of great importance, since it 
materially increases the elasticity of the skin. 

The shape of the portion of skin that is sacrificed will depend 
more or less on the shape of the tumor. When circumstances per¬ 
mit, the shape should be elliptical, so that sutures may leave a 
linear scar. If the area is to be skin-grafted, it makes no differ¬ 
ence what shape it is. 

If the tumor is beneath the normal skin, so that the latter need 
not be sacrificed, a linear incision over the center of the tumor is 
the best to use. Curved incisions often heal with a very prominent 
scar. After the flaps of skin are dissected free and retracted, the 
tumor is exposed. Its removal is facilitated if one frees it first 
on one side and then upon the other. 1 his enables the operator 
partially to lift it from the wound and so the better to expose the 
base where the most difficult dissection lies. A cystic tumor should 
usually be split open before removal (see p. 447). 

Skin-Grafting. —The success of skin-grafting depends largely 
upon the care with which the grafts are handled at the time of 
operation and subsequently. There are three distinct methods. 

Minute grafts may be obtained either by snipping bits out of 
the skin or by scraping and macerating particles from the outer 
layers of thick epidermis. They have not generally yielded good 
results. The little islands of epidermis which they produce will 
often melt away unless the epidermis growing from the side of the 

ulcer reaches and surrounds them. 

A variation of this method is claimed Hesclike to be more 
successful. He scrapes into a pulp healthy epidermis obtained 


774 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


from the operating room or after accidents, dilutes this with 
enough normal saline solution, and injects it through a large 
needle into the granulation tissue of the wound or burn. At the 
site of each injection there is formed a small island of epithelium, 
which gradually works its way to the surface, and then spreads. 
The quality of the epithelium thus formed is said to be as good 
as that which develops from Thiersch grafts. 

Thiersch Grafts. —Sheets of skin shaved off with a razor, and of 
sufficient thickness to include the deeper layers of the epidermis 
and possibly some of the dermis itself (so-called Thiersch grafts) 
have yielded far better results. The site from which the grafts are 
taken should he cleansed with soap and hot water and washed with 
sterile normal salt solution (.8 per cent). The anterior surface of 
the thigh or the outer side of the upper arm are favorite places 
from which to take grafts. The skin should he drawn tight and 
smooth with the fingers or hooks. With a sharp razor, preferably 
ground flat on its under surface, strips of skin an inch wide and an 
inch or more in length and of a fairly uniform thickness can be 
shaved off. The surface to which these are to be applied should be 
fresh, but should be wiped free from blood. If it is a freshly made 
wound, hemorrhage should first be controlled by pressure as a blood 
clot under a graft will absolutely prevent its union. If the surface 
is a granulating one, the granulations may be shaved off with a 
razor or simply wiped with sponges wrung out in hot sterile saline 
solution until the granulations are clean and fresh. Here, too, 
oozing of blood must be at a standstill before the grafts are applied. 
As the grafts have a tendency to shrink even though kept moist, it 
is necessary that they should fully cover the surface. Over them 
may be laid strips of rubber tissue which are to be covered with 
compresses constantly kept moist with saline solution, or the tissue 
may be omitted and the compresses laid directly on the grafts. In 
either case light pressure should be maintained by a bandage in 
order to insure a continuous application of the grafts to the under¬ 
lying surface. Some surgeons do not apply any dressing whatever 
for several hours, so that the drying of the serum shall firmly 
attach the graft to the underlying granulations. After that a 
dressing of dry or moist gauze or rubber tissue is applied. 

The subsequent treatment varies. The dressing may be changed 
daily, great care being observed to keep the grafted area con- 


WOLFE GRAFTS 


775 


stantly moist and protected from any pressure which would cause 
the graft to slip. Another plan is to change the dressing in three 
or four days. Still another plan is to cover the grafts with moist 
or dry gauze, and not to change the dressing for two or three 
weeks. Some surgeons apply a plaster of Paris bandage to pro¬ 
tect the part from injury. 

It will be evident in three or four days whether the grafts have 
become attached, but even those which appear to he loose should 
not be too hastily removed, since their deeper portions may have 
united with the underlying granulations. In a week or more the 
grafts and portions of graft which have not attached themselves 
will have become disintegrated, or will be washed away with 
the pus. 

The new skin obtained by minute or Thiersch grafts will 
never be the equal of normal skin. It is easily distinguished from 
the surrounding skin years afterward. It may resemble the sur¬ 
rounding skin under ordinary circumstances, but it does not react 
in the same way to temperature changes. In this respect Wolfe 
grafts and plastic operations are superior to Thiersch grafts. 

Wolfe Grafts.—The third method of skin-grafting consists in 
the use of grafts composed of the entire thickness of the skin. In 
some instances success has followed this method when a graft eight 
inches long and two and a half wide has been employed. The 
names of Wolfe and also of Krause have been given to this method 
of grafting. These large grafts are nourished at first by effusion, 
and then minute vessels make their way into the grafts, and in 
some instances communicate with the vessels already existing. 

The technique is similar to that employed for applying a 
Thiersch graft. Asepsis without the use of germicidal solution 
and the control of hemorrhage by pressure are important points, 
The grafts should be freed of fat. They may be stitched into 
position, hut this is not absolutely necessary. It is of the utmost 
importance that the grafts should not be moved for several days. 
Some operators apply dry sterile gauze, and do not change it for 
weeks unless there is a purulent discharge. Before attempting to 
remove the dressing, the part should be soaked for an hour in warm 
horacic acid solution. Other operators cover the grafts with rubber 
tissue and moist gauze. 

According to the results which have been reported, one may 



776 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


expect success with about three-fourths of the grafts employed. 
Some of the grafts attach themselves in part, other parts becoming 
necrotic. Equally good results have been obtained by using the 
skin of a healthy person who has died from an accident only an 
hour or so previous. 

If a Wolfe graft once becomes united, it is far superior to a 
Thiersch graft. It has all of the characteristics of normal skin, 
and prevents in great measure the contraction of the underlying 
scar tissue. Hence, Wolfe grafts are especially serviceable to cover 
defects about the joints. 

Plastic Operations. —Plastic operations are performed in 
order to hasten the healing of wounds and to prevent or remove 
deformities of various kinds. They owe their success to the abun¬ 
dant blood-supply of the skin as well as to its great elasticity. 
On this account flaps with a comparatively small pedicle, especially 
if the pedicle is directed toward the artery which supplies the tissue 
:)f the flap, will maintain their vitality, while the elasticity of the 
skin enables the operator to stretch one side of the wound far 
more than the other without producing a difference in tension 
which will he noticeable after a few days or weeks. The pedicle 
of a flap may even be bent at a fairly sharp angle with the assur¬ 
ance that the “ kink ” in the skin thus formed will probably 
disappear entirely, or, if a surplus remains, it can readily he 
removed at a subsequent operation. 

Plastic surgery naturally finds its chief field upon the face. 
To cover a considerable defect in the skin of this region is a 
problem which has called forth many ingenious operations, all of 
which are dependent on one or more of the following three meth¬ 
ods : By the first method a tongue-shaped flap is turned back over 
the defect so that it is wrong-side out. This method is especially 
of use about the nose, where it is desirable to form a nasal cavity 
lined with epithelium. By the second method flaps of various 
shapes are rotated about their own pedicles in the plane of the 
surface of the skin. The third method depends upon the elasticity 
of the skin. By it an incision is made straight away from the 
defect for an inch or more. The skin and subcutaneous tissue 
on one side of the wound is freed from the underlying tissues, 
and drawn along until it either closes the defect or is stretched as 
far as seems prudent. If two parallel incisions are made, the in- 


WITHDRAWAL OF BLOOD 


777 


tervening skin can be stretched even further. If the tension is great 
a large number of fine sutures are more favorable to vitality than 
a few, since they divide the strain among them, and no one of them 
is so likely to shut off circulation or to cut through the skin. 

A method of delayed transplantation is practiced by Blair. 
The flap is freed as usual, all but its pedicle. It is then stitched 
light back into its bed for 7 or 10 days, and then freed again 
except the pedicle and swung into its new position, and stitched 
in place. During this waiting period, the arteries in the pedicle 
are stimulated to greater than normal activity, so that the flap 
is rendered more viable, while the temporary stitching in its 
original site, prevents shrinkage. 

Infection from operations of this character is of rare occur¬ 
rence. It is practically impossible to make some of these wounds 
aseptic or to keep them so, but the abundant blood-supply prevents 
the spread of germs in the living tissues in the great majority 
of cases. The dressing should be changed not later than the second 
day, and if any inflammation shows itself about the stitches the 
wound should be frequently cleansed with a mild antiseptic solu¬ 
tion ; but enough stitches should be left to keep the flaps in posi¬ 
tion unless the inflammation assumes a serious character. Even 
if two or three stitch abscesses occur, it is usually possible to post¬ 
pone removal of the last of the stitches until the flaps have united 
so firmly as to assure the success of the operation. The develop¬ 
ment of erysipelas in the wound is a serious matter, for it is likely 
to proceed at once to deeper layers; and even if it does not cause 
the death of the patient, the success of the operation is eliminated. 

Withdrawal of Blood for Examination.—I n most cases this little 
operation is easily performed, but at times difficulties are encoun¬ 
tered which render some rules for its correct performance de¬ 
sirable. 

Two or four drams of blood are drawn through a hollow needle 
into a clean sterile test tube or small wide-necked bottle. A hol¬ 
low needle about the size of a lead in a lead pencil is boiled. 
A prominent vein in the arm, either at or below the elbow, is 
chosen, the overlying skin cleansed by wiping with a cotton swab 
wet with alcohol, and a tourniquet placed around the upper arm. 
A slender rubber tube or catheter drawn taut about the arm and 
caught with an artery forceps answers perfectly. (Eig. 423.) 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


778 


The ligation should not be tight enough to affect the arterial 
flow. The needle with its opening directed toward the vein is 



Fig. 423.—Withdrawal of Blood from a Vein for Examination. 


then passed very obliquely upward into the vein. This move¬ 
ment should be made promptly but steadily; a jab will probably 



Fig. 424.— Needle in Position. A, correct position with opening parallel to vein; 
B, incorrect position, in which it is difficult to make the lumen of the needle 
match that of the vein. 


miss the vein. Failure is usually due to the passage of the needle 
clear through the vein. While the skin is movable over the large 
veins, the distention of the vein brings it into intimate contact 
with the skin and obliterates the connective tissue space between 






















WITHDRAWAL OF BLOOD 


779 


them. The point of the needle, therefore, punctures the vein 
almost as soon as it passes the skin (Fig. 424). 

If a preliminary injection of cocain seems necessary on ac¬ 
count of the timidity of the patient, the amount injected should 
be only a drop or two, and into the skin rather than beneath it.. 
If the space between skin and vein is distended with the injected 
fluid, puncture of the vein is more difficult. 

An improvement in this technique consists in the use of a 
large glass syringe attached to the needle. Aspiration made by 



Fig. 425.— Glass Syringe and Needle for Spinal Puncture. One needle bent 
to show its flexibility. For aspiration of blood and intravenous medicationi, 
a shorter needle may be used. 


the gradual withdrawal of the piston of the syringe, greatly favors 
the escape of blood through the needle. For this reason a smaller 
needle can be used, and this in turn makes easier a quick and 
accurate puncture of the vein. The blood in the syringe is ready 
for distribution for such chemical, bacterial or other tests as mayj 
be indicated. (Fig. 425.) This has now become the routine 
laboratory method of obtaining blood for examination, when more 
than a few drops are needed. If intravenous medication is de¬ 
sired, the previously prepared remedy placed in a second syringe 
may be injected through this same needle, the ligature of course 
being removed from the arm. 

In very stout women the veins are so inconspicuous that it 
may be necessary to puncture one at the elbow, guided only by 





780 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


the sense of touch. Its elasticity and compressibility may be 
recognized although the vein is not seen. 

If a patient faints, the veins collapse with the fall in blood 
pressure and it is most difficult to adjust the ligature in such a 
manner as to render them prominent. If, for this or other reason, 
puncture is impossible the skin should be cocainized and a short 
incision made, the vein hooked out of the fat with a ligature- 
carrier or some other curved, blunt instrument, and punctured 
under the guidance of the eye. 

In all cases as soon as the required amount of blood is ob¬ 
tained the tourniquet should first be released, then the needle 
withdrawn and a compress applied for half a minute to the punc¬ 
tured wound to prevent subcutaneous hemorrhage. The prick in 

the skin should then 
be touched with col¬ 
lodion. 

An incised wound 
should be sutured 
if it gapes and cov¬ 
ered with a dry 
dressing; but a short 
longitudinal i n c i - 
sion will require no 
suture. 

Intravenous Medi¬ 
cation.—A great va¬ 
riety of drugs are 
administered in this 
way. If the remedy 
is non-irritating and 
is small in amount, 
it is only a simple 
matter to select a 
prominent vein, to 

Fig. 426. —Gangrene Following Injection of Neo- P^i^k it with the 
salvarsan. Three longitudinal incisions are seen hypodermic needle, 
but no pus was obtained. This patient had previous . , 

injection without bad result. and to make the in¬ 

jection. 

If the remedy is large in amount, and particularly if it is of 
an irritating character, a more elaborate technique is necessary. 




INJECTION OF SALVARSAN 


781 


The injection of salvarsan or neosalvarsan is typical of this class, 
and will serve as an example for all. 

Injection of Salvarsan.—Salvarsan is generally injected into a 
vein. Neosalvarsan is similarly employed. On account of its 
readier solubility it is sometimes injected into the deeper tissues 
of the buttocks, but such injection is not without risk, since it may 
produce a dry gangrene—possibly reaching to the skin (Fig. 426). 

The wide use of salvarsan has led to the manufacture of a 
great variety of special instruments for its intravenous intro¬ 
duction. While many men 
exhibit a preference for 
special apparatus for a par¬ 
ticular purpose, the tech¬ 
nique of the intravenous in¬ 
jection of salvarsan is essen¬ 
tially the technique of 
transfusion (page 785) or of 
intravenous medication, ac¬ 
cording to the concentration 
in which the drug is em¬ 
ployed. On account of the 
irritability of the salvarsan 
solution in subcutaneous tis¬ 
sue one must be careful not 
to permit its escape outside 
the vein. Hence it is ad¬ 
visable to begin and end 
the injection with normal 
saline solution. 

One may follow the tech- ;p IG 427 .—Simple Apparatus for Saline 
nique given on page 785, or ° B ™ E lNJECTION ° F 

may simply puncture the 

vein in the manner described on page 777, remove the tourniquet 
and start the injection. No special apparatus is needed. The 
salvarsan or neosalvarsan should be mixed according to diiections 
in a graduate. Only a glass funnel with three feet of lubber 
tubing, a glass connecting rod, and an inch of rubber tubing to 
make connection with the hollow needle are required (Fig. 427). 

When all is ready the vein is punctured, a specimen of blood 





782 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


taken if desired, and the tourniquet removed. Saline solution is 
poured into the funnel and allowed to run through the tube. While 
it is still running connection is made; and the fact that it runs 
smoothly into the vein must be established, more saline being 
poured into the funnel if necessary to prove this absolutely. Then, 
before the funnel is empty, the salvarsan is poured into it fast 
enough to keep some fluids always in the funnel. Just before 
the salvarsan has all escaped from the funnel it is followed with 
enough saline to make sure that all the salvarsan has passed 



Fig. 428. —Apparatus for Administration of Salvarsan. (Brayton.) 

through the tube into the vein. Pressure is then made above the 
puncture and the needle is quickly withdrawn. Pressure is con¬ 
tinued by a compress and bandage for a few minutes, and, if the 
skin was incised, the dressing is left in place. 

The accumulated experience of many operators proves the 
safety of giving both salvarsan and neosalvarsan in far more con¬ 
centrated solutions than was at first advised by the manufacturers. 
This still further simplifies the technique of administration, since 
the whole dosage may be contained in a syringe not too bulky for 
accurate manipulation. Figure 428 shows the complete apparatus 
(except the needle) necessary for the intravenous injection of 0.6 
salvarsan. The apparatus is sterilized by boiling in distilled 








INJECTION OF SALVARSAN 


783 


water, 30 c.c. of which is placed with the salvarsan in the bottle 
and well shaken. Sodium hydroxide, fifteen per cent, is then 
added drop by drop until all precipitate is dissolved. A bit of 
sterile absorbent cotton is placed in the funnel, and the solution 
filtered through it into the syringe. The plunger is inserted, 
needle attached, and injection made directly into the vein made 
prominent by digital compression of the arm. Brayton, who has 
used this technique a great many times, finds that the number of 
reactions is far less than when the older method of dilution with 
250 c.c. of water is followed. 

The full dose of neosalvarsan, 0.9 gm., readily dissolves in 10 
c.c. of distilled water, and may be given intravenously through 
any glass syringe holding that amount. 

With a technique so simplified salvarsan is often given in a 
doctor’s office and the patient allowed to go home. It is not 
intended here to do more than describe the technique of injection, 
but it should not be forgotten that the use of this powerful drug 
sometimes causes serious symptoms and has caused death. What¬ 
ever may be thought of its office use in general, it certainly should 
not be so employed with persons who show signs of status 
lymphaticus or disease of the central nervous system or of other 
important organs; and any person receiving an injection should 

immediately go home and to bed. 

Injection of Dilated Veins. —It is possible to cause an artificial 
thrombosis of a dilated or varicose vein, by injecting some irritat¬ 
ing substance into its lumen, and confining the circulation for a 
time, by local pressure. The phlebitis which follows will obliter¬ 
ate the lumen of the vein for an inch or more, but the effect 
is more widespread than this, for the blood has to find new 
channels at a variable distance from the occluded vein, depending 
upon the situation of the nearest branches. A half dozen injec¬ 
tions, properly placed, will quite alter the appearance of a leg 

disfigured by a number of great veins. 

This method of treatment, which is similar in principle to 
the aspiration and injection treatment of hydrocele, has been care¬ 
fully worked out by Douglas Stewart, who recommends the fol¬ 
lowing mixture for injection: Salicylic acid and Borate of Soda, 
each one-half ounce; pure Carbolic Acid and Spirits of Camphor, 
each one and one-half ounces; Glycerin, four ounces. This passes 


784 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


readily through a not too fine hypodermic needle. From five to 
ten minims are injected in one place. 

The following technique has given me good results: Select a 
point where the dilatation is prominent. There will often be a 
branch at such a point, so that obliteration there will be effective 
in more than one direction. Have ready the hypodermic syringe 
containing the carbolic acid mixture; three firm small pads, made 
by strapping gauze to inch long pieces of a wooden tongue de- 



Fig. 429. — 1 hrombosis Which Gradually Obliterated the Dilated and Tor¬ 
tuous Internal Saphenous Vein, Following an Injection of Carbolic Acid 
Mixture, Just Above the Knee. Photographed three weeks after injection. 


pressor; and several pieces of adhesive about six inches long. 
Wipe the skin with alcohol. Let an assistant compress the vein 
below and above the point of injection. Puncture the vein and 
withdraw the piston slightly to make sure that the point of the 
needle is in the lumen. As soon as blood appears in the syringe, 
inject from one to fifteen minims, according to the size of the 
vein. Strap one of the pads firmly over the injected vein. Sub¬ 
stitute the other pads one at a time for the finger pressure, and 
strap them firmly in position. A bandage may be applied, hut it 
is not neccessary if the pads have been properly fixed in position. 
After three days the pads may be removed, and a more diffuse 





TRANSFUSION 


785 


pressure of a larger gauze pad may be secured by adhesive or a 
bandage. 

The normal result of this treatment is the immediate oblitera¬ 
tion of the injected vein. It remains as a hard cord in the center 
of a rather indurated area, for two or three weeks or longer, 
according to the size of the vein and of the injection, etc. There 
is a sharp pain at the moment of injection, but this is not severe 
and lasts only for a minute. Sometimes the thrombosis extends 
for some distance from the site of injection. This is an advan¬ 
tage if it does not extend too far. Sometimes the injection is 
followed by a local hyperemia, but this gradually fades out. It 
is conceivable that too firm pressure might lead to local skin 
necrosis. The pressure should not be excessive; but neither 
should it be too slight nor too general, since the continuous con¬ 
tact of the sides of the vein, secured by the pressure, is an im¬ 
portant point in obtaining a complete and permanent obliteration 
of the vein, especially if it is a large one. 

The beginner will do well to make a single injection, and to 
await its result, before making others. As his own and the 
patient’s confidence in the treatment increases, two or three in¬ 
jections may be made in different veins, at the same sitting; but 
they should not be too near each other. It is not necessary for 
the patient to go to bed after an injection, which may, therefore, 
be made in the doctor’s office. The relief which follows the oblit¬ 
eration of large and tortuous veins is very great. 

In case of multiple, minute dilated veins, which branch out 
in the skin like a bunch of little red rootlets, a subcutaneous in¬ 
jection of two or three minims, followed by local pressure, will 
often effect a cure. 

Transfusion. — This term, which was originally applied to 
the transfer of blood from an animal or man to another man, 
is now often employed to denote the intravenous injection of a 
normal saline solution. Such a solution may be quickly piepared 
by adding a dram of salt to the pint of boiled water, which should 
have a temperature of about 100° F. as it enters the body. Hence 
it should be somewhat warmer than this when placed in the irri¬ 
gator or fountain syringe. Four feet of rubber tubing, termi¬ 
nating in a fine-pointed glass nozzle or a blunt-pointed hollow 
needle, are the other essentials of the appaiatus. 


786 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


The vein usually chosen for the injection is the median cephalic 
vein which crosses the anterior surface of the elbow obliquely 
from within outward and upward. A light ligature around the 
middle of the upper arm will make it more prominent. There 
is, however, no necessity of selecting this vein if another is more 
readily found. In the condition of acute anemia, which usually 
exists when intravenous injection is performed, the veins are col¬ 
lapsed and are sometimes found with difficulty. Under such cir¬ 
cumstances the position of the vein in the operator’s own arm may 
prove a guide to the median cephalic in the arm of the patient. 

The skin is cleansed by wiping it with absorbent cotton wet 
with alcohol. A transverse incision is made over the vein which 
has been chosen, dividing the skin only. The exposed vein is 
seized with dissecting forceps, and the connective tissue is peeled 
from it for a little distance upward and downward. Two catgut 
ligatures are then passed around it, but not tied. Tension upon 
these makes the vein more prominent, so that it is more easily 
opened. A longitudinal incision is then made and the point of 
the metal needle or the glass nozzle is inserted in the vein in the 
direction of the shoulder. The upper ligature is tied in a single 
knot, thus compressing the vein around the nozzle and preventing 
the entrance of air and the escape of the saline solution. The 
lower ligature is tied in a square knot to prevent hemorrhage. 

The saline solution is injected slowly, say at the rate of a 
pint in five minutes. The rate and character of the pulse are the 
guides to the amount which should be employed. The injection 
should be kept up until there is a distinct improvement in both 
the rate and quality of the pulse. If the hemorrhage has been 
severe, it is usually well to inject at least three pints. When the 
injection is finished, the tube is withdrawn, the upper ligature 
tied, both ligatures cut short, and the skin sutured. 

If it is necessary to repeat the injection, the same vein may 
be utilized. The wound is reopened, the upper ligature cut, and 
the nozzle again inserted, and a new ligature applied as before. 

In conditions requiring transfusion the veins are collapsed, 
else one might use the simpler technique described on page 777. 

Hypodermoclysis. — It has been found that saline solution, 
injected subcutaneously, acts almost as promptly as when it is 
injected into a vein. The same apparatus is required, except- 


DIRECT BLOOD TRANSFUSION 


787 


ing that the hollow needle in which the tube terminates should 
have a sharp point. This is thrust into the loose tissues beneath 
the breast, or around the scapula, or in the loin or buttock. The 
difficulty is to make the fluid flow fast enough. It is, therefore, 
a good plan to connect the tube with two needles by means of a 
glass y , and to hasten the absorption by massage in the vicinity 
of the injection. After half an hour the needle should be shifted 
to another situation. 

A refinement in the technique of hypodermoclysis is suggested 
by Bartlett. He uses sterile water, not. a saline solution, on the 
ground that the system does not need the addition of so much 
extra salt. The water is not irritating to the tissues, but to make 
the very slow injection as nearly painless as possible he dissolves 
it in novocain, sufficient to make a solution of one-sixteenth of 
one per cent. The skin of the flank is sprayed with ethyl chlo¬ 
ride, and a very fine needle inserted. This is connected with a 
can, held two or three feet above the patient. If the skin of the 
patient becomes tight, the tube is clamped for a few minutes until 
some of the injected fluid is absorbed. 

Direct Blood Transfusion.— If blood is withdrawn from the 
donor, and defibrinated or treated chemically and is then injected 
into a vein of the recipient, the surgical technique is that of intra¬ 
venous medication (page 780). In every blood transfer, and 
particularly if the blood is to be transferred directly, it is neces¬ 
sary to determine the compatibility of the two individuals when 
this has been satisfactorily determined, a direct transfusion is 
permissible.. 

Transfusion of blood finds its chief value in cases in which the 
recipient has suffered a large acute hemorrhage or repeated smaller 
ones. Its use in diseases of different kinds is still in the experi¬ 
mental stage. Transfusion has been combined with blood-letting 
in experiments upon animals; but the results thus far obtained 
have not been sufficiently definite to warrant its employment 
in man in diseases in which alterations of the blood would seem 
to make it desirable to draw off old blood and replace it with new. 

The technique of transfusion has been variously worked out by 
different operators. Anyone intending to practice it should first 
experiment upon dead blood vessels and then upon the blood 
vessels of animals before attempting to turn the blood stream from 


788 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


one vessel to another in human subjects. The character of the 
tissues operated upon is such that general surgical skill does not 
quite suffice; but even an hour’s practice will show a marked 
improvement in a beginner’s delicacy of technique. 

The usual form of transfusion is from an artery to a vein— 
generally from the radial artery to the mediancephalic, cephalic, 



Fig. 430. — Radial Artery Exposed, Stripped of its Adventitia, Clamped Below, 
and Divided Ready for Insertion into the Vein. (Deavor’s Method.) 


or other vein of the arm. There are three methods of connecting 
these vessels which have been variously employed and combined; 
namely, by means of a cannula, by suture, and by invagination of 
the proximal end of the artery into the proximal or distal end 
of the vein. Whatever the method employed, injury to the blood 
vessels, long exposure to the air, and other steps which facilitate 
clotting of the blood should be avoided. For this reason the use 
of a cannula and direct suture of artery to vein are less to be 



TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD 


789 



recommended than the method of invagination, which is per¬ 
formed as follows: 

The wrist of the donor and the arm of the recipient should ho 
scrubbed with soap, water, and alcohol. 

The radial artery should be exposed for a distance of two 
inches, stripped of its ad¬ 
ventitia to reduce its size 
and increase its firmness, 
and covered with a warm, 
moist saline compress (Fig. 

430). • 

A ligature is placed 
around the upper arm of 
the recipient tight enough to 
distend the veins. The vein 
selected is exposed by a lon¬ 
gitudinal incision for an inch 
or more, brought to the sur¬ 
face and fixed with two fine 
clamping mouse-tooth forceps 
placed side by side, so that 
when the vein is opened lon¬ 
gitudinally between them 
they will control the cut 
edges (Fig. 431). 

The ligature is next re¬ 
moved from the arm and the 
vein is opened for an inch 
or less. The artery is di¬ 
vided, its distal end clamped 
and its proximal end seized 

with fine thumb forceps 
(Fig. 430). While the blood is streaming from it, it is passed 

upward into the vein about an inch, just as one inserts a rubber 
drainage tube into a sinus. The two forceps upon the vein are 
crossed, thus lapping the edges of the vein around the mvaginated 
artery tight enough to prevent the escape of blood. 

If one wishes to estimate the amount of blood passed to the 
recipient, a certain number of spurts from the cut artery should 
be caught in a measuring glass before the vessel is inserted into 


Fig. 431. —CephalicVeinExposed,Clamped 
and Incised, Ready to Receive the 
Radial Artery. (Deavor’s Method.) 




790 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


the vein. The pulse of the donor should then be counted as long 
as the transfusion continues, and in this manner a fairly accurate 
estimate is made of the total amount of the transfused blood. 

This technique, suggested by Deavor, of Syracuse, is so simple 
that it is difficult to see how it can be improved upon. 

Greasing of the cut end of the artery and a special clamp to 
compress the end of the artery while inserting it into the vein 
have been suggested, but these means are unnecessary. When the 
transfusion is finished the artery is withdrawn, ligated, and the 
wound sutured. The opening in the vein may be closed by liga¬ 
tures or a suture or simply by pressure after suture of the skin. 

Our knowledge of the amount of blood which should be trans¬ 
fused is not very definite. Clinically the practice has usually 
been to continue the transfusion for half an hour or more until 
the pulse, blood pressure, and other symptoms showed a material 
change in the donor or recipient, or both. It is safe to employ 
from eight to twelve ounces at one time. If more is used the 
recipient should be carefully watched for sudden changes in the 
pulse, embarrassment of respiration, or nervous irritability; for 
the danger of a large overdose of transfused blood is far greater 
than that of an overdose of transfused saline solution. 

Blood-letting’, or Venesection.— The withdrawal of blood 
through an opening made in one of the larger veins is a practice 
of great antiquity. At times it has been extremely popular, and 
at times it has fallen into disuse. It is not necessary in this place 
to discuss the theory of venesection, or blood-letting, but simply 
to describe a simple aseptic technique for the proper performance 
of this little operation if it should be considered necessary. The 
vein usually chosen is the median cephalic vein, which crosses the 
anterior surface of the elbow-joint obliquely from within outward 
and upward, and is made prominent by a light ligature around 
the middle of the upper arm. There is, however, no necessity of 
choosing this vein, and in some cases it is not the most prominent 
one in this vicinity. Any well-marked vein of good caliber will 
suffice. 

The skin should be carefully cleansed and strict asepsis ob¬ 
served during the operation. 

The vein is exposed and opened by a short incision from above 
downward. This should divide the skin and the superficial wall 



LEECHING 


791 


of the vein. If one fixes the vessel by pressure with the thumb, 
a single stroke of the point of the knife will suffice to open the 
vein. The blood is allowed to escape into a measuring glass. 
From one to three pints should be removed, according to circum¬ 
stances. It is useless to withdraw merely a few ounces. 

When sufficient blood has been withdrawn the ligature is re¬ 
moved from the upper arm and the flow of blood is stopped by a 
sterile gauze compress and bandage. Or a single suture may be 
inserted to close the wound. 

Cupping. — This is a means of drawing a small quantity of 
blood to the surface of the body or of withdrawing it from the 
body altogether. The former method is spoken of as dry-cupping 
and the latter as wet-cupping. 

To obtain the best results from dry-cupping one should have 
from six to a dozen small deep glasses, an alcohol lamp or a 
candle, a pledget of cotton wound around the end of a stick, and 
a small quantity of alcohol in a cup or other convenient vessel. 

The surface of the body where the cups are to be applied is 
exposed, the cotton swab is wet with alcohol, lighted in the candle 
flame, and quickly passed to the bottom of an inverted cupping- 
glass. This heats the glass and the air which is contained in it. 
The flame is then withdrawn from the glass, and the latter is 
quickly placed, while still inverted, upon the patient s skin. As 
the heated and rarefied air contained in the glass cools, a partial 
vacuum is formed which sucks up the underlying skin and causes 
the blood to accumulate in it and the sweat to exude from its 
pores. The maximum effect is produced in a minute or two. 
Meantime several other cups will have been burned out and ap¬ 
plied to the adjoining surface. The glasses used should be thin, 
so that they will cool quickly if heated. Two ounce whisky glasses, 
or the deeper glasses which hold three or four ounces, and are 
often used for mineral waters, answer the purpose admirably. 

Wet-cupping is performed in the same manner as dry-cup¬ 
ping, excepting that the skin is first prepared by a number of 
shallow incisions. These may be made with a scalpel or with a 
special scarificator. When the cup is applied a dram or more of 

blood is withdrawn. 

Leeching. — The use of leeches to withdraw blood from a 
bruised or inflamed area is still employed to a certain extent in 


792 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


spite of the fact that infection may be produced in this manner. 
To reduce this risk the skin where the leech is to he applied should 
first he cleansed. The leeches should be removed from the water 
in which they are kept an hour or more before they are needed. 
They will then attach themselves more readily. It is well to have 
three or four leeches at hand, because sometimes one may fail to 
attach itself, and at the most a single leech can withdraw only 
two or three drams of blood. If warm moist compresses are kept 
over the part after the leech has dropped off, a little more blood 
will escape. 

Vaccination. —This little operation is often performed with 
the gravest disregard of surgical principles. The septic infection 
which not infrequently results is the cause of much of the popular 
prejudice against vaccination itself. 

Now that vaccine material is supplied in surgically clean form 
direct from the calf, there is ho opportunity for the doctor to 
shift the responsibility for any bad result. 

The skin of the arm or leg of the patient should be cleansed 
by soap and water and alcohol or ether and allowed to dry. It 
should then be scratched over a minute area—not more than one- 
eighth inch in diameter—or a very shallow incision may be em¬ 
ployed, the instrument, needle or scalpel, having been sterilized 
in a flame or wiped clean with a cotton swab wet with alcohol 
or ether. The vaccine should be rubbed in with the same sterile 
instrument—not with a match or toothpick. 

The wound should be covered with a large shield and this with 
a thin layer of sterile cotton and a gauze bandage. The part 
should he inspected at least every three days and redressed as 
often as any serous discharge stains the dressing. This plan of 
treatment should he continued until the wound is entirely healed, 
and its importance should be impressed upon the patient and the 
parent. 

For the treatment of ulcer following vaccination see page 432. 

Injections for Neuralgia.—The treatment of neuralgia by 
injections of alcohol into the trunk of a nerve has become firmly 
established. Two c. cm. (30 m.) of 90 per cent, alcohol will 
produce an anesthesia lasting for weeks or months. The nerves 
upon which this treatment has most often been employed are 
the second and third branches of the fifth cranial, and, as the 


TRIFACIAL INJECTION 


793 


technique is similar for other nerves, it must suffice to describe 
the injection of these two branches. 

Before making injection one should be sure of the existence 
of neuralgia as differentiated from other pains. As chief charac¬ 
teristics of true neuralgia it may he noted that the pain always 
begins in a distinct point and radiates only to the area of distri¬ 
bution ot the affected nerve. It is paroxysmal in type, recurs in 
the same situation, and, after the disease is chronic, the pain can 
be started by some slight stimulus in the affected area, such as 
a light touch to the face. 

I he instruments required for injection are a glass syringe 
holding 2 c. cm. (30 minims) fitted without thread to a needle 10 
or 12 cm. (4 or 5 in.) long with a caliber of 1.5 or 1.8 mm. (about 
1-16 in.) and having a rather blunt point. The needle should be 


-*-•.. I ..*. .. . 

Fig. 432. —Syringe and Stylet and Needle for Trifacial Injection. (Patrick.) 

fitted with a stylet of such a length that when pushed home it 
just blocks the point of the needle (Fig. 432). 

The needle should be marked in centimeters or fractions of 
an inch up to 6 cm. (2J in.). The solution used for injection 
may be 70 or 80 or 90 per cent, alcohol in water, with or without 
a little cocain. H. T. Patrick, of Chicago, now uses rather a 
weaker formula, viz., cocain, gr. ii; alcohol, oiiiss; water, 3i. 

The second or superior maxillary branch of the 5th cranial 
nerve leaves the skull through the foramen rotundum. It can be 
reached in front of the coronoid process of the lower jaw, just 
under the zygoma (Fig. 433, point 2). Deep pressure with the 
tip of the little finger made by the operator upon his own face 
at this point will give him some appreciation of the situation of 
this nerve. To reach it the needle should be passed inward and 
a little upward to a depth of 5 cm. (2 in.) (Figs. 434 and 435). 
Ho local anesthetic is needed, and a general anesthetic makes it 
impossible for the patient to tell the operator when the needle 
touches the nerve. The skin may, however, be cocainized. The 























794 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


point of insertion having been settled, the empty needle is passed 
through the skin and the stylet is then introduced to lessen the 
risk of puncture of a vessel. The needle is then slowly passed 
until bone is touched or tingling or pain in the area of distri¬ 
bution of the superior maxillary nerve shows that its trunk lias 
been touched. Bone touched at less than two inches is probably 
the posterior margin of the superior maxilla. In some cases a 



Fig. 433.—Showing the Points of Insertion of the Needle in Relation to the 
Bones of the Face; 2, to Reach the Superior Maxillary Nerve, and 3, 
to Reach the Inferior Maxillary Nerve. (Patrick.) 

better access to the nerve is obtained if the patient opens his 
mouth. 

If the nerve is not touched the needle should be withdrawn a 
little way and again pushed in a little to one side or the other of 
its former position. This causes very little pain and there are no 
important structures to be injured in the immediate vicinity. If 
repeated soundings fail to touch the nerve the injection of a drop 
or two of the alcoholic solution may produce the tingling sensation 
sought for, but the results are not likely to be so good as when 
the patient recognizes that the needle point has pricked the nerve. 


















































SUPERIOR MAXILLARY INJECTION 


795 


^ hen the needle is in place the stylet is withdrawn, the syringe 
attached, and the full 2 c. cm. (30 m.) of the alcoholic solution 
are injected and should produce an almost instant anesthesia over 
the whole area of distribution of the nerve. The needle is then 
withdrawn, the puncture touched with collodion, and a few min¬ 
utes later the patient is allowed to get up. 

Variations in the shape and position of the zygoma and coro- 
noid process may make it necessary to insert the needle above the 
zygoma or behind the coronoid process. In the former case the 
needle must be directed downward, and, in the latter, well for¬ 
ward, to make allowance for the change in the point of entrance. 

If no immediate anesthesia follows injection it must be looked 
upon as a failure and another attempt should be made in a day or 
two. Even those most familiar with the technique report that they 
often fail to reach the nerve by the first injection; while in a 
considerable number of cases—probably more than 25 per cent.— 
repeated injections are unsuccessful. However, the patient has 
little to lose by the trial and everything to gain if it succeeds. 
When a marked anesthesia is produced which lasts two or three 
days there may be expected relief from pain lasting from six 
months to four years. 

The injection of the inferior maxillary nerve is similar to that 
of the superior maxillary nerve described above. The point of 
entrance is shown at 3 in Figure 433. The needle is directed 
very slightly upward and a little backward (Figs. 436 and 437), 
a distance of 4 cm. (just under 2 inches). 

If the needle touches bone at less than two inches it is prob¬ 
ably the external plate of the pterygoid. One feels his way back¬ 
ward along this bone till the nerve is reached. 

Many operators have given precise anatomical directions for 
these injections, but variations in the human skull, and the 
fact that exact measurements are impossible from bony points 
covered with flesh, make such directions of little use. Practice 
on the cadaver is a good preparation, but, no matter what the 
experience, one must feel his way to the nerve in making the 
actual injection. 

Peripheral branches of the fifth cranial nerve, or other sensory 
nerves of the body which are subject to distinct neuralgic attacks, 
may be treated by alcoholic injections, but, on account of the risk 





Figs. 434 and 435.—Needle Inserted for Injection of the Superior Maxillary 

Nerve. Side and front views. (Patrick.) 


796 








Figs. 436 and 437. —Showing the Point of Insertion and Direction of the 
Needle for Injection of the Inferior Maxillary Nerve. Side and front 

views. (Patrick.) 


797 









798 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


of paralysis, nerves which contain important motor fibers should 
not be thus treated. 



Fig. 43S. Diagrammatic Sagittal Section of the Lumbar Spine, Showing the 
Necessary Inclination of the Needle for Lumbar Puncture. This figure 
also shows the thick ligaments which would have to be traversed if the needle 
were inserted in the median line. 



Fig. 439.—Transverse Section of the Lumbar Spine at the Level of the Third 
Intervertebral Disk, Showing the Insertion of the Needle for Lumbar 
Puncture. A slightly increased inclination of the needle is better. It should 
be directed toward the center of the spinal canal. 

















LUMBAR PUNCTURE 


799 


Lumbar Puncture. — As the usefulness of lumbar puncture, 
both for purposes of diagnosis and as a means of injecting an 
anesthetic, has been well established, a description of the tech¬ 
nique is advisable. In the first place, one should rid himself of the 
idea that it is a difficult procedure; it is, on the contrary, very 
easy. In the lumbar portion of the vertebral column the spinous 
processes project only slightly downward, so that there is a dis¬ 
tinct gap between them. This gap is filled with ligaments. To 



Fig. 440.— The Bones of the Lumbar Spine as Seen from Behind. The bar' 
rel of syringe as here represented is too far to the right, giving the needle too 
great an inclination. Compare Figures 438 and 439. 

pass a needle into the spinal canal in the median line it would be 
necessary to force it through about an inch of superspinous and 
interspinous ligaments (Fig. 438). One avoids this by inserting 
the needle about half an inch to the right or left of the median 
line (Fig. 439). The needle should then be aimed so that its 
point will strike the median plane about an inch and a half from 
the posterior surface. As the lumbar cord does not extend as low 
down as the bottom of the second lumbar vertebra, there is no risk 
of puncturing the cord with the needle unless one inserts it above 
the second lumbar interspace. As a means of obtaining spinal 
fluid for diagnostic purposes, there is no necessity to go above the 











800 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


third interspace. This is also the usual space selected for lumbar 
anesthesia. 

The technique then is as follows: The patient sits, or lies upon 
his side, with the lumbar spine well flexed, in order to separate 
the spinous processes. The third interspace is determined by a 
palpation. The skin is anesthetized by ethyl chlorid, or the in¬ 
jection of two or three drops of a solution of cocain. It is then 
punctured with a narrow, sharp-pointed scalpel, one-half inch 
below and one-half inch to the right or left side of the spinous 
process of the third lumbar vertebra. This is about on a level with 
the crest of the ileum (Fig. 440). A small trocar and cannula 
or a not too sharp aspirating needle is then inserted in a direction 
slightly inward and upward for a distance of one and a half to 
two inches. It will either enter the spinal canal or strike bone. 
If it enters the spinal canal, serum will drop out of the cannula or 
needle. Only so much should be allowed to escape as is necessary 
for diagnostic purposes, or as will equal the bulk of the anesthetic 
to be injected. If cocain is employed, it may be sterilized by 
dissolving it in ether, evaporating to dryness in a small glass dish, 
and adding sufficient water to make a two per cent solution. Ten 
minims of this (one-fifth of a grain) are usually sufficient. It is 
well to know how much fluid is required to fill the needle, and to 
make an allowance for this in estimating the amount injected. It 
takes ten minutes to produce a satisfactory anesthesia, and the 
maximum effect is not produced until twice or thrice this period 
has elapsed. The cannula may be left in place until it is evident 
that the anesthesia will be satisfactory. Care should be taken 
that no fluid escapes from it during this waiting period. If neces¬ 
sary, the dose may be repeated in ten or fifteen minutes, and the 
cannula removed. The wound in the skin is covered with a bit 
of cotton and collodion. 

Stovain (one per cent solution) is by some preferred to cocain. 
The dose required is about the same. 

With care one can use the following simplified technique for 
lumbar puncture. 

Sterilize an all glass 20 c. cm. syringe and a 4 inch needle of 
small caliber. (Fig. 425, p. 779.) It is of the utmost im¬ 
portance that the needle shall be of fine quality so that it will 
not break if bent. Test it beforehand. 


VACCINES AND SERUMS 


801 


Let the patient bend forward, either in a sitting position, or 
lying on the side. Be sure that the shoulders and hips, right and 
left, are similarly placed with reference to the spine. 

Determine by palpation in the median line the lumbar inter¬ 
space which seems the widest. This is usually on a level with 
the iliac crest. 

Clean the skin with alcohol and paint it with iodine. 

Put on sterile gloves, or if they are lacking, clean the hands 
and use a sterile gauze pad to guide the needle so that the fingers 
may not touch it. 

Inject a few drops of a sterile solution of novocain with a 
hypodermic needle, also sterile, into the skin and along the prob¬ 
able track of the puncturing needle. 

Fix the needle on the glass syringe, and insert it slowly in the 
chosen interspace, in the median line or slightly to one side (see 
Fig. 438), and slanted very slightly upward. Such a small 
needle, if sharp, will pass through the interspinous ligament with¬ 
out difficulty. Passed in the median line, it is certain to reach 
the spinal canal, unless it strikes bone above or below. As the 
needle enters the spinal canal there is a sudden yielding to the 
pressure on the syringe which is unmistakable. If the fluid in 
the canal is under a positive pressure the piston of the syringe 
may be pushed outward in the barrel by it. 

If the needle strikes bone before it enters the spinal canal, 
do not pry it sideways. This is the way poor needles are broken 
off. Even if the needle does not break, the technique is faulty, 
for one cannot change the direction of the needle in that way. It 
should be withdrawn almost to the skin, and inserted in a slightly 
greater or less elevation, but still in the median line. 

When the needle has entered the canal, draw into the syringe 
as much fluid as may be required for diagnostic or therapeutic 
purposes and withdraw the needle slowly; or if an injection is to 
be made, remove the barrel of the syringe, prepare the fluid for 
injection, inject it slowly, and then withdraw the needle. 

Place a little sterile cotton on the opening and seal it with 
collodion. 

Vaccines and Serums.—Interest in vaccine therapy and serum 
therapy is to-day widespread. The aid of bacterial laboratory 
products is so often sought in surgical conditions that every doctor 


802 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


should bo familiar with the necessity for and the method of their 
administration. The term serum therapy has been rather care¬ 
lessly employed to cover the use of any remedy directly or re¬ 
motely connected with a micro-organism. Without going into 
details of the preparation of these remedies it is evident that they 
must he divided at least into two classes; namely, vaccines, that 
is to say, fluids containing live bacteria or dead bacteria or some 
of the chemical products (toxins) of bacteria; and serums taken 
from horses or other animals after they have received injections 
of some vaccine long enough to develop some protective changes 
in their blood. 

These two classes of remedies are so distinct that no intelli¬ 
gent person ought to confound them. They are just as distinct as 
an ax is distinct from a pile of stovewood all cut and ready for 
use. Either may save a man from freezing to death. But, in the 
case of the ax, as in the case of the vaccine, he has to provide his 
own protection; while the serum, like the stovewood, is protection 
ready made, although the probability exists that it may also stimu¬ 
late the recipient to some protective exertions of his own. 

The protection against disease is spoken of as immunity. 
When it is obtained through use, of a vaccine it is called active 
immunity; and if it follows the use of a serum it is called passive 
immunity. It is supposed to be due to the existence in the blood 
and other fluids and tissues of the body of certain substances called 
antibodies, which either destroy bacteria or render them harmless 
or neutralize their poisons. 

If a vaccine is used these antibodies must be developed by the 
individual. If a serum is used the antibodies are introduced with 
the serum, having been previously developed in the animal from 
which the serum was taken. 

In selecting the vaccine to be employed it seems natural to 
choose one derived from the same bacterium as that which is at¬ 
tacking the patient. For instance, if the person is suffering from 
a series of boils, one may isolate the organisms of a freshly opened 
pus focus and culture the prevailing bacteria to produce the vac¬ 
cine. This is then called an autogenous vaccine. Or, to save ex¬ 
pense or delay, one may only determine the species of organism 
present (probably the staphylococcus aureus in the example cited) 
and buy of the druggist a vaccine previously made from other 


VACCINE THERAPY 


803 


strains of this germ. Still a third plan is to employ a vaccine 
made from cultures of several kinds of bacteria capable of pro¬ 
ducing lesions similar to those from which the patient is suffering. 
Such a vaccine is technically called “polyvalent.” Whether or 
not its value is increased on account of the different species of 
bacteria which are contained in it is still an unsettled problem. 
Bacteriologists and clinicians who have given much study to vac¬ 
cine therapy are almost unanimously in favor of autogenous vac¬ 
cines whenever they can be obtained. Sometimes a polyvalent vac¬ 
cine contains only one bacterial species, but a mixture of strains 
of this species obtained from different individuals having tlie same 
disease. 

While different forms of vaccine may be prepared the only 
kind in general use is a suspension in normal saline solution of 
bacteria killed by heat, to which a small amount of some anti¬ 
septic, usually one of the phenols, is added as a preservative. 
It is standardized by estimating the number of bacteria per c. c. 
and diluting it to the required strength. The dosage of dead 
bacteria employed often runs into the millions. 

Vaccines are given subcutaneously; preferably with a glass 
hypodermic syringe and fine steel needle. The ordinary Sub-Q. 
syringe answers every purpose. Syringe and needle should he 
sterilized hy boiling, and well rinsed after use. A little alcohol 
sucked up into the needle before it is disconnected from the syringe 
will delay rusting. It is well to keep a special syringe and several 
needles simply for vaccine injection. 

As the bacterial suspension always settles, the bottle should 
be well shaken before the fluid is drawn into the syringe. 

The site of injection should be one which permits easy disten¬ 
tion of the tissues and is not likely to be pressed upon. The 
upper arm, the region below the scapula, or the clavicle, the side 
of the chest or the buttock may be chosen. The needle should 
be plunged well through the skin so that the injection shall be 
made into loose connective tissue. Repeated injections should 
not be given in the same area. 

If the fluid does not quickly diffuse through the tissues light 
massage is advisable. If a vein is punctured and blood escapes 
subcutaneously immediate massage is not ad\isable as it might 
increase the bleeding. 


804 


OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE 


The local reaction following injection is usually slight and 
no dressing is needed. If a painful red swelling results a wet 
dressing gives relief. The possibility of infection and formation 
of an abscess should be kept in mind after any injection, and, if 
the characteristic signs appear two or more days later, incision 
and drainage should not be long delayed. 

In successful vaccination there is a “negative phase’ 7 lasting 
a day more or less, followed by a "‘positive phase” lasting for 
several days. These phases are marked by changes in the opsonic 
index of the patient’s blood and also by clinical symptoms. Thus 
during the day following the injection there are likely to be ano¬ 
rexia, malaise, headache, and a higher temperature with increased 
pain and swelling in the area of infection. The following day, 
or when the positive stage develops, the patient feels distinctly 
better and there is subsidence of the infection, as shown by less 
pain and by less discharge from the wound, if such exists. 

The chief use of vaccine therapy in minor surgery is to limit 
the spread of infections. An agent capable of checking the 
spread of an acute cellulitis of the hand, for example, would be 
of untold value. Unfortunately, in these acute cases it is often 
difficult to determine promptly the exact organism at work, and, 
where this is known and a vaccine prepared, it is equally difficult 
to decide upon the dosage which will best aid the body in its 
defence. To conclude, as some have done, that vaccines have no 
place in the treatment of acute suppurative infections is going too 
far; but they should be used with great caution and, above all, 
one should not expect them to take the place of free drainage— 
for this still holds the first place in our treatment. 

The dosage of bacteria in vaccine therapy ranges from 50 
million to 1,000 million or more. Only experience will enable the 
administrator to judge of the amount probably required to pro¬ 
duce the best results. An overdose gives a prolonged “negative 
phase ” with too great depression and the beneficial reaction is 
unduly delayed or does not occur. An insufficient dose, or a 
dosage of bacteria not suited to the case, gives a transient negative 
phase followed by little or no improvement. If repeated and in¬ 
creased doses fail to give relief it is unwise to continue a treat¬ 
ment which simply gives a patient other poisons to eliminate. 

In the treatment of chronic or recurrent boils a vaccine of the 


VACCINE THERAPY 


805 


yellow pus staphylococcus lias proved most efficacious. Infections 
due to the deadlier streptococcus are less amenable to treatment by 
vaccine even when a leliable autogenous preparation is available; 
but enough good results have been obtained to warrant giving both 
stock and autogenous preparations a trial. 

We may sum up our present knowledge of vaccine therapy, 
as far as its applicability in surgical infections is concerned, by 
saying that is a method of treatment which has at times proved 
beneficial but which is still in the experimental stage. It should 
only be used to supplement surgical measures—never to supplant 
them. 


r 




I 



r 


INDEX 


Abdomen, auscultation of, 155. 
contusion of, 154. 
symptoms of, 154. 
treatment after, 156. 
descending spiral bandage of, 649. 
many tailed bandage of, 650. 
mclanosarcoma of, 191. 
penetrating wound of, 158. 
testicle within, 254. 

Abdominal rigidity after injury, 155. 

Aberrant thvroid in skull, 105. 

Abrasions, wet dressing for, 7. 

Abrasions of the face, 7. 
of the scalp, 7. 

Abscess, alveolar, 39. 

imperfect drainage in, 44. 
incision for, 46, 771. 
location of, 39. 
scar from, 47. 
treatment for, 45. 
axillary, 429. 

“ collar-bntto i, ” 405. 
drainage of, 771. 
from pediculi, 130. 
in cellulitis, 402. 
in tonsillitis, 55. 
irrigation of, 772. 
ischiorectal, 291. 
drainage of, 294. 
operation for, 294. 
rupture of, 293. 
symptoms of, 292. 
treatment of, 293. 
mammary, 173. 
of anus, 291. 
of breast, drain for, 173. 
hot wet, compresses for, 173. 
incision for, 173. 
of external genitals, 212. 
of face, 38. 
of finger, 405. 


Abscess, of foot, 518. 
of forearm, 422. 
of leg, 517. 
of lip, 38. 

of little finger, incision for, 417. 
of neck, 130. 
deep, 131. 

of pharynx, incision for, 56. 

of rectum, 291. 

of scalp, 38. 

of scrotum, 212. 

of tip of thumb, 406. 

of tongue, 38. 

of wrist, incision for, 417. 

opening of, 771. 

perirectal, 291. 

peritonsillar, 55. 

retropharyngeal, 56. 

section of finger showing sites cf, 406, 

treatment of, 38. 

under sternomastoid muscle, 131. 

Abscess cavity, drainage of, 419. 

Absence of anus, 323. 

Absorbable sutures, 572. 

Absorbent cotton, 563. 

Absorbent gauze, 565. 

Accessory tendons, resection of, 470. 

Acne, treatment for, 33. 

Acne of the face, 32. 

Acne rosacea, operation for, 85. 

Acquired deformities of female geni¬ 
tals, 272. 
of foot, 543. 
of hand, 463. 
of neck, 147. 

Actinomycosis of the face, 65. 

Action of the flexors of the fingers, 
329. 

Active motions after fracture, 370. 
after sprain, 339. 

Acute conjunctivitis, 47. 


807 




808 


INDEX 


Adenoids, 86. 

operation for, 89. 

Adenoma of breast, 183, 187. 
Adhesions of foreskin, 245. 
of the clitoris, 277. 

Adhesive plaster strapping, for broken 
rib, 168. 

for fracture of the patella, 499. 
for hammer-toe, 555. 
for sprain of ankle, 494. 
for sprain of back, 159. 
for sprain of thumb, 340. 

Adrenalin in local anesthesia, 756. 
Air-passages, suture of wounds of, 119. 
Alcohol, injections of, for neuralgia, 
792. 

Aluminum acetate for burns, 27. 
bronze wire, 576. 
splints, 580. 

Alveolar abscess, 39. 

Amputation for frost-bite, 394. 
for hammer-toe, 556. 
for a finger, 390. 
of toes, 510. 
of uvula, 111. 

Anatomical tubercle, 399. 

Anesthesia, 690. 

acid intoxication from, 712. 
apparatus for, 716, 721, 727, 732, 749. 
complications of, 699, 703, 712, 723, 
'726, 736, 746. 

contraindications to, 719, 730, 738. 

deaths from, 710, 719, 738, 740. 

discovery of, 715, 724, 740. 

general, 690. 

hypodermic, 739. 

in children, 691. 

in diagnosis of fractures, 368. 

in oral surgery, 748. 

induction of, 695, 725. 

local, 754. 

oxygen in, 707, 720, 723. 

preliminary medication in, 695, 744. 

preparation for, 692. 

records of, 713. 

recovery from, 707. 

rectal, 740. 

regional, 756. 

respiration in, 696, 698, 704, 718. 
signs of, 697, 725. 


Anesthesia, shock in, 704, 709, 745. 
spinal, 743, 758. 

status lymphaticus and, 711, 748. 
vapor method of, 728, 733, 748. 
vomiting from, 701, 708, 725. 

Anesthetics, administration of, 718, 
726, 731. 

chloroform, 730, 736. 
choice of, 745. 
ether, 724, 730. 
ethyl chlorid, 737. 
mixed, 738. 
nitrous-oxid gas, 715. 
oil-ether, 741. 
sonmaform, 738. 

Anesthetist, qualifications of, 691. 

Aneurism of hand, 448. 
of leg, 540. 

of the popliteal artery, 540. 

Angina Ludovici, 131. 

Angioma, capillary, 80. 
electrolysis for, 81. 
injection of boiling water for, 81. 
pulsating, of scalp, 82. 

Angiosarcoma of the jaw, 106. 

Animal tendons, 574. 

Animal, bites of, 328. 

Ankle, figure of eight bandage of, 679. 
fractures involving, 504. 
sprain of, 493, 496. 
with fracture, 495. 

Anthrax, of face, 59. 
of neck, 132. 

Antiseptic dressing for burns, 28. 

Antrum of Highmore, drainage of, 54. 

Anus, abscess of, 291. 
absence of, 323. 
cancer of, 316. 
care of, 290. 
chancroids about, 299. 
deformities of, 318, 322. 
dilatation of, 283, 287. 
examination of, 280. 
fissure of, 289. 
fistula of, 295. 
hemorrhage from, 284. 
imperforate, 322. 
inflammations of, 286. 
injuries of, 280. 
itching about, 287. 





INDEX 


809 


Anus, mucous patches of, 300. 
pointed eondylomata of, 307. 
polyp of, 308. 

syphilitic eondylomata of, 300. 
tumors of, 307. 
venereal warts about, 307. 
wounds of, 284. 

Application of a bandage, 598. 
of a gypsum bandage, 582. 
of plaster cast, 585. 

Applications for fissure, 290. 

Arm, arterial aneurism of, 448. 
bandages of, 651. 
boil of, 404. 

deforming arthritis of, 434. 
furuncle of, 404. 
hematoma of, 325. 
injuries of, 324. 
lipoma of, 451. 
lymphadenitis of, 429. 
lymphangitis of, 428. 
multiple lipomata of, 452. 
neuritis of, 342. 
neurofibroma of, 455. 
osteomyelitis of, 443. 
spiral bandage of, 652. 
tuberculosis of joints of, 440. 
tumors of, 445. 

Arm and hand, burns of, 393. 
dislocation of, 347. 
treatment for wounds of, 330. 

Arsenious acid for epithelioma, 104. 

Arterial anastomosis, 787. 

Arterial aneurism of arm, 448. 

Artery, division of radial, 328. 

Arthritis, gonorrheal, 433. 
of arm, deforming, 434. 
of hand, suppurative, 423. 
of neck, deforming, 134. 
suppurative, with loss of bone, 424. 
rheumatoid, 434. 
tuberculous, treatment for, 443. 

Articular rheumatism, 433. 

Ascending spica bandage, of both 
groins, 667. 
of buttock, 669. 
of one groin, 665. 
of shoulder, 651. 

Ascending spiral bandage of abdomen, 
650. 


Ascites, 199. 

Asepsis, 751. 

Aspiration and injection for hydrocele, 
239. 

Aspiration of bladder, 220. 

of fluid from joint, 484. 

Astragalus, fracture of, 507. 
Astringent applications for inconti¬ 
nence of urine, 272. 

Astringent douches in leucorrhea, 265. 
Astringents for relaxation of uvula, 
111 . 

in gonorrhea, 215. 

Atrophy of the deltoid following in¬ 
jury, 342. 

Auscultation of abdomen, 155. 
Autoinfection in gonorrhea, 49. 

Axilla, complete bandage of, 631. 
lymphadenitis of, 429. 
palpation of, 189. 

suppurating glands of, incision for, 
430. 

Axillae, figure of eight bandage of 
both, 626. 

Axillary abscess, 429. 

Back, adhesive plaster for sprain of, 
159. 

contusions of, 154. 
epithelioma of, 190. 
fibrolipomata of, 185. 
gunshot wound of, 156. 
lupus of, 178. 
sprain of, 158. 

treatment for sprain of, 158. 
Balanitis, 210. 

circumcision for, 211. 

Bandage, amount of pressure of, 601. 
application of, 598. 
black silk, 670, 688. 
completion of, 602. 
crinoline, 570, 584. 
effect of, on circulation, 602. 
extremity of, 597. 
figure of eight turn of, 600. 
flannel, 568. 
for fractured jaw, 21. 
gauze, 567, 689. 
gypsum, 582. 
how to fasten, 602. 



810 


INDEX 


Bandage, initial extremity of, 597. 
muslin, 508. 

of plaster of Paris, 582. 
of silk ribbon, 570. 
overlapping turns of, 599. 
preparation of, 596. 
reverse of, 598. 
rubber, 570. 
spica, 601. 
spiral reverse, 598. 

Bandages, of arm, 651. 
gauze for, 565. 
of head, 603. 
of neck and axilla, 621. 
of lower extremity, 665. 
of stump, 688, 689. 
of trunk, 634. 
of upper extremity, 651. 

Bartholin’s gland, cyst of, 270. 
incision for suppuration in, 264. 
inflammation of, 263. 

Barton’s bandage of lower jaw, 617. 
Baseball finger, 361. 

Bed, wetting of, 220. 

Bedbugs and fleas, bites of, 171. 
Bed-sore, treatment for, 175. 

Benign tumors of external genitals of 
female, 270. 

Biceps muscle, rupture of, 327. 

Birth, hernia at, 194. 

Bites, of animals, 328. 
of fleas and bedbugs, 171. 
of insects, 171. 

Bivalve rectal speculum, 283. 

Black bandage, 570. 

Black eye, treatment for, 2. 

Blackhead, 66. 

Bladder, affection of, in gonorrhea, 
215. 

aspiration of, 220. 
astringent applications for inconti¬ 
nence of, 272. 

calculus due to foreign body in, 208. 

catheter in, 209. 
exstrophy of, 252. 
foreign bodies in, 208, 259. 
relaxation of sphincter of, 272. 
rupture of, 210. 
tumors of, 235. 

Blair’s method of plastic surgery, 777. 


Blind external fistula, 297. 

Blind internal fistula, 297. 

Blister, containing blood, 325. 
on the foot, 471. 
traumatic, 325. 
treatment for, 325, 471. 

Blood in urine, 210. 

Blood, transfusion of, 787. 

withdrawal of, for examination, 777. 

Bloodblisters, 325. 

Blood-clots, crepitus due to, 367. 

Blood-letting, 790. 

Blunt dissection for lipoma, 137. 
of tonsil, 89. 

Boeckmann’s method of sterilization 
of catgut, 572. 

Boil, 36, 126. 

carbolic acid for, 126. 

of anus, 291. 

of arm, 404. 

of ear, 37. 

of eyelid, 37. 

of face, 36. 

of hand, 405. 

of neck, 126. 

of nose, 37. 

poultice for, 126. 

treatment of, 36, 126. 

vaccine treatment of, 804. 

Bone, exposing of, in ulcer of leg, 529. 
necrosis of, from suppuration in a 
tendon sheath, 421. 
reposition of fractured, 368. 

Bottini ’s operation, 236. 

Bougies for stricture of rectum, 306. 

Boxer’s ear, 4. 

Brain, concussion of, 17. 

Branchiogenic cysts, 137. 

Breast, abscess of, 173. 
adenofibroma of, 187. 
cancer of male, 191. 
contusion of, 153. 
cystic tumors of, 182. 
drain for abscess of, 173. 
early diagnosis of tumors of, 188. 
enlarged glands in carcinoma of, 189. 
excoriation of, 172. 
hypertrophy of, 187. 
incision for abscess of, 173. 
palpation of, 188. 




INDEX 


811 


Bieast, retracted skin in carcinouma 
of, 189. 

sarcoma of, 190. 

simple cyst of, 183. 

solid tumors of, 187. 

spica bandage for, 638. 

treatment for adenofibroma of, 188. 

tuberculosis of, 180. 

tumors of male, 191. 

Breasts, spica bandage of both, 640. 
Bronchi, foreign body in, 118. 

Bryant’s perpendicular, 487. 

Bubo, treatment of, 224. 

Bullet, removal of, 14. 

in hand or arm, 337. 

Bunion, 482, 550. 

Burn, edema of the penis and scrotum 
in, 211. 

Burns, aluminum acetate for, 27. 
antiseptic dressing for, 28. 
cicatricial contraction from, 29. 
exposure of, to the air, 27. 
of back of leg, 513. 
of external genitals, 210. 
of face, 25. 

of first degree, treatment of, 25. 

of foot, 513. 

of hands and arms, 393. 

of head, 25. 

of neck, 125. 

of second degree, treatment of, 26. 

of third degree, treatment of, 28. 

of trunk, 170. 

oily dressing for, 26. 

paraffin-wax for, 768. 

picric acid for, 27. 

repair after, 29. 

saline solution for, 27. 

skin grafting for, 29, 393. 

sloughs after, 28. 

splint for, 393. 

X-ray, 30. 

Bursa, gastrocn emio-semimembranosa, 
481. 

incision of, 479. 
of the lower extremity, 476. 
under the tcndo Achillis, 481. 
Bursitis, 476. 

metatarsophalangeal, 482. 
of foot, treatment of, 483. 


Bursitis, olecranon, 346. 
suppurative, 427. 
prepatellar, acute, 476. 
chronic, 478. 
suppurative, 477. 
treatment of, 479. 
subdeltoid, 340. 
subgluteal, 480. 

Buttock, ascending spica bandage of, 
669. 

descending spica bandage of, 670. 
gangrene of, from salvarsan, 780. 
Buzz-saw, injuries to fingers from, 388. 

Calcareous nodules in the ear, 91. 
Calculus, due to foreign body in blad' 
der, 208. 

of bladder causing incontinence, 

221 . 

of the urethra, 207. 

Callus, 537. 

of the foot, 537. 
treatment of, 537. 

Canal, large inguinal, 253. 

Cancer, chimney sweep ’s, 233. 

and syphilis of the testicle com¬ 
pared, 228. 
and X-ray, 104. 
of anus, 316. 

of breast, bleeding from the nipple 
in, 189. 

early diagnosis of, 188. 
enlarged glands in, 189. 
retraction of nipple in, 189. 
retraction of skin in, 189. 
of male breast, 191. 
of penis, treatment for, 234. 
of rectum, 316. 
of tonsil, 107. 

papilloma of skin mistaken for, 77. 
Canton flannel, 569. 

Carbolic acid, gangrene from, 395. 

use of, for a boil, 126. 

Carbuncle, 127. 
of neck, 127. 

treatment of, 128. 

Carcinoma, of anus, 317. 
of cervix, 271. 
of leg, 543. 

of lower extremity, 543. 





812 


INDEX 


Carcinoma, of nipple, 190. 
of penis, 233. 
of rectum, 317. 
of testicle, 234. 
of trunk, 191. 
of vulva, 271. 

Carcinomatous ulcer, 543. 

Care of anus, 290. 

of tracheotomy tube, 120. 

Carpus, fracture of, 384. 

Carrel-Dakin treatment, 766. 

Cartilage, costal dislocation of, 169. 

Caruncle, urethral, 270. 

Castration, 235. 

for tuberculosis, 230. 
in enlargement of prostate, 236. 

Casts for flatfoot, 592. 

Catgut, 572. 
chromic, 574. 
in envelopes, 574. 
in sealed glass tubes, 574. 
sterilization of, by boiling, 573. 
by dry heat, 572. 
by formaldehyde, 573. 
by iodin, 573. 
in alcohol, 573. 
in cumol, 573. 
ten-day, 574. 

Catheter, as a drainage-tube, 577. 
in the bladder, 209. 
passage of, in prostatic hypertrophy, 
236. 

passing of, 274. 

Catheterization, 222. 

for retention of urine, 219. 
of female, 273. 

Causes of retention of urine, 219. 
of ulcer of leg, 521. 

Caustics, in epithelioma of face, 103. 
not to be used on a mole, 77. 

Cauterization of prolapsed urethra, 
274. 

of prostate, 236. 
of rectum, 320. 

Cellulitis, abscess in, 402. 

gangrene complicated with, 397. 
incision for, 398. 
of finger, 402. 

followed by gangrene, 403. 
of external genitals, 264. 


Cellulitis, of hand, 402. 
of head, 33. 

of lower extremity, 515. 
of neck, 125. 
of trunk, 172. 
suppuration in, 34. 
treatment for, 34. 

Celluloid thread, 576. 

Cervical glands, enlarged, in leukemia, 
145. 

in pseudoleukemia, 145. 
in syphilis, 145. 

Cervical lymphadenitis, 140. 

Pott’s disease, 133. 

treatment for, 133. 
tuberculosis, 133. 

Cervix, carcinoma of, 271. 
catarrh of, 264. 
dilatation of, 266. 
erosion of, 264. 

malignant tumor of, treatment for, 
271. 

polyp of, 270. 
stenosis of, 278. 

hard-rubber plugs for the cure of, 
279. 

Chafing, prevention of, 287. 

Chancre, duration of, 225. 
of finger, 436. 

of genital organs of female, 268. 
of penis, 225. 
resection of, 226. 
treatment for, 225. 

Chancroid, 268, 300. 

infectiousness of discharge in 224. 
inguinal adenitis with, 223. 
of penis, 222. 

spasm of sphincter ani with, 300. 
treatment for, 224. 

Chancroids, about the anus, 299. 

reinfection of, 299. 

Cheek, epithelioma of, 96. 
suture of wound of, 15. 
syphilis of, 59. 

Chest, anterior figure of eight bandage 
of, 634. 

contusions of, 153. 

descending spiral bandage of, 636. 

penetrating wound of, 157. 




INDEX 


813 


Chest, posterior figure of eight band¬ 
age of, 635. 

Chest and arm, Desault’s bandage of, 
645. 

Velpeau’s bandage of, 643. 
Chilblains of hand, 394. 

Childhood, incontinence of, 220, 273. 

treatment for, 221. 
Chimney-sweep’s cancer, 233. 

Chromic catgut, 574. 

Chronic, external hemorrhoids, 312. 
gonorrhea in female 264. 
hemorrhoid, 311. 

operative treatment for, 314. 
inflammations of leg, 532. 
paronychia, 410. 
prepatellar bursitis, 478. 
proctitis, 289. 
prolapse of rectum, 319. 
rhinitis, 53. 

serous synovitis of knee, 484. 
suppuration in joints of foot, 532. 
ulcer and varicose veins, 521. 
ulcer of the leg, 519. 
urethritis, 216. 

Cicatrices of the neck, 147. 

Cicatricial, contraction after burns, 29. 

contractions of hand, 463. 

Cigarette drains, 578. 

Circular bandage, of neck, 621. 
of toe, 686. 

Circular gypsum splint, 585. 
Circulation, affected by plaster splint, 
503. 

affected by bandage, 602. 
Circumcision, 247. 

as a cure for masturbation, 251. 
complications following, 250. 
edema after, 250. 
for balanitis, 211. 
hemorrhage after, 250. 
infection after, 250. 
results after, 250. 
retraction of skin after, 250. 
surplus skin after, 251. 

Claudius’s method of sterilization of 
catgut, 572. 

Clavicle, dislocation of, 168. 
fracture of, 163. 

reduction of, by operation, 167. 


Clavicle, fracture of, Sayre dressing 
for, 165. 

treatment for, 164. 

Cleansing field of operation, 752. 

Cleft, closure of pharyngeal, 76. 

of the lower lip, 114. 

Cleft palate, 112. 
operation for, 112. 
rubber plate for, 115. 
treatment for, 114. 

Clefts of ear, 116. 

Clitoris, adhesions of, 277. 

Closure of first pharyngeal cleft, 76. 
Coaptation splints, 580. 

Cocain, injection of, 754. 

in spinal anesthesia, dose of, 744. 
Coccygeal cysts and sinuses, 181. 
Coccygodynia, 192. 

Coccyx, displaced, 192. 
removal of, 193. 

Coffee, a cause of pruritus, 287. 

‘ ‘ Collar-button ’ ’ abscess, 405. 

Colies’s fracture, deformity in, 380. 

ulna involved in, 380. 

Comedo, 66. 

Complete bandage of axilla, 631. 
of neck, 628. 

Complete fistula in ano, 298. 
Completion of bandage, 602. 

Complex spicabandage of great toe,687. 
Complications, following circumcision, 
250. 

of gonorrhea, 215. 

Compound fracture of finger, 387. 
Compound fractures of upper extrem¬ 
ity, 386. 

Compresses for abscess of breast, 173. 
Concentric figure of eight bandage, of 
elbow, 654. 
of knee, 674. 

Concussion of brain, 17. 

Condyloma of vulva, 269. 

Congenital, clefts of ear, 116. 
cysts of neck, 135. 
deformities, of anus, 322. 
of ear, 116. 

of female genitals, 277. 
of foot, 561. 
of hand, 465. 
of male genitals, 244, 



814 


INDEX 


Congenital, hydrocele, 420. 
hypertrophy of finger, 469. 
sinus near ear, 76. 
stricture of rectum, 323. 
Conjunctivitis, acute, 47. 
contagious, 48. 
granular, 49. 
purulent, 48. 
treatment for, 48. 

Constipation in hemorrhoids, 312. 
Constipation due to rectal folds, 3C6. 
Contagion of ringworm, 58. 

Contraction of finger following sup¬ 
puration in tendon sheath, 421. 
of palmar fascia, 465. 

Contractions, cicatricial, of hand, 463. 
Control of hemorrhage, 758. 

Contusion, of abdomen, 154. 
of back, 154. 
of breast, 153. 
of chest, 153. 
of external genitals, 255. 
of hand, 324. 
of head, 1. 
of intestine, 156. 
of lower extremity, 471. 
of neck, 117. 
of nerve, 335. 
of penis, 203. 
of scalp, 1. 
of testicle, 204. 

Cord, hydrocele of, 240. 

Corn, 538. 

treatment of, 538. 

Costal tuberculosis, 178. 

Cotton, 563. 
absorbent, 563. 
substitutes for, 565. 
unbleached, 563. 

Cotton thread, 576. 

Cotton waste, 565. 

Cotton-collodion dressing, 766. 
Coughing, impulse on, in hernia, 195. 
Crepitus due to blood clot, 367. 
false, 367. 

proof of fracture, 367. 

Crinoline for bandages, 570. 

in gypsum bandages, 583. 

Crossed bandage of perineum, 671. 
Crossed circular bandage of head, 605. 


Crossed union of radius and ulna, 379. 

Cupping, 791. 

Curettage of uterus, 267. 

Curette, for removal of adenoids, 89. 

Cutaneous hematoma. 326. 

Cutaneous hemorrhoids, 310. 

Cyst, dental, 72. 

dermoid, of head, 72. 
mucous, of mouth, 71. 
of Bartholin’s gland, 270. 
salivary, 72. 

sebaceous, diagnosis of, 67. 
of head, 66. 
of neck, 135. 
simple parotid, 72. 
sublingual salivary, 71. 
thyreoglossal, 135. 

Cvstic, adenomata of breast, 183. 
tumors of breast, 182. 

of external genitals, 231. 
of trunk, 181. 

Cystitis in gonorrhea, 215. 
tubercular, 229. 

Cystotomy, suprapubic, for retention 
of urine, 220. 

Cysts, branehiogenic, 137. 
coccygeal, 181. 
of infant breast, 182. 
of neck, congenital, 135. 
of testicle, 232. 
umbilical, 181. 

Dactylitis, syphilitic, 436. 

differential diagnosis of, 438. 

Dawbarn’s needles, 765. 

Deforming arthritis of arm, 434. 
of neck, 134. 

Deformities, of anus, 318. 
of ear, 116. 
of face, acquired, 108. 

congenital, 112. 
of foot, acquired, 543. 

congenital, 559. 
of hand, 463. 

congenital, 467. 
of nose, 108. 
of rectum, 318. 

Deformity after fracture, 364. 
after fracture of radius, 383. 




INDEX 


815 


Deformity, following fracture of lower 
end of humerus, 375. 
in Colles’s fracture, 380. 
in old fracture of radius, 384. 
skin grafting for cicatricial, 463. 

Deltoid atrophy from injury, 340. 

Demonstration of floating patella, 490. 
of fluid in knee-joint, 490. 

Dental cyst, 72. 

Dermatitis, distinguished from eczema, 
432. 

from poison ivy, 30. 
from heat and cold, 30. 
from traumatism, 30. 
of hand, 400. 

Dermoid cyst, diagnosis of, 73. 
near nose, 4. 
of ear, 75. 
of head, 72. 
of orbit, 74. 
of trunk, 182. 
operation for, 75. 
treatment for, 75. 

Desault’s bandage of chest and arm, 
645. 

Descending spica bandage, of both 
groins, 669. 
of buttock, 670. 
of one groin, 664. 
of shoulder, 652. 

Descending spiral bandage, of abdo¬ 
men, 649. 
of chest, 634. 

Descent of testicle, 253. 

Diabetes, gangrene in, 513. 
perforating ulcer in, 530. 
pruritus due to, 261. 

Diagnosis, of adenoids, 87. 
of angioma, 80. 
of dermoid cyst, 73. 
of epithelioma, 95. 
error in, 98. 
of tongue, early, 103. 
of fractures, 363. 
of hernia, 194. 
of rupture of urethra, 208. 
of sebaceous cyst, 67. 
of ulcer of rectum through procto¬ 
scope, 302. 
of wry-neck, 149. 


Diarrhea in ulcer of rectum, 302. . 
Differential diagnosis, of hydrocele, 238. 
of the cord, 241. 
of sprain of knee-joint, 491. 
of syphilitic dactylitis, 438. 

Diffuse lipoma, 139. 
of neck, 138. 

Digital examination of rectum, 280. 
Dilatation, of anus, 283. 
of cervical canal, 266. 
of cervix for stenosis, 279. 
of female urethra, 260. 
of rectal stricture by the fingers, 305 
of sphincter ani for fistula, 297. 
of a stricture, 218. 
of veins of rectum, 311. 
sudden, of urethra, 217. 

Dilated veins, injection of, 783. 
Dilator, rectal, 287. 

Direct blood transfusion, 787. 
Discharge of blood clot, from hemor¬ 
rhoid, 310. 

of chancroid infectious, 223. 

Disease, Paget’s, 190. 

Dislocation, functions after, 350. 
incision for, 348. 

Kocher’s method of reduction in, 
351. 

of clavicle, 169. 
of costal cartilage, 169. 
of elbow, 351. 

with fracture, 353. 
of finger, 357. 
of forefinger, 357. 
of head of radius downward, 354. 
of humerus, 350. 
of jaw, 24. 
of neck, 125. 

spontaneously reduced, 123. 
of phalanx of thumb, 355. 
of radius, 351. 
of radius and ulna, 351. 
of shoulder, 350. 
of thumb, 349, 355. 
of vertebra, 125, 170. 
of wrist, 355. 
prognosis after, 348. 
reduction of, 347. 

Stimson’s method of reduction of, 
351. 



816 


INDEX 


Dislocation, treatment for, 347. 
unreduced, 350. 

Dislocations, of arm and hand, 347. 
of lower extremity, 497. 

Displaced coccyx, 192. 

Displacement of ankle in fracture, 504. 
of meniscus of knee, 491. 

Dissection of lipoma, 79. 
of prepatellar bursa, 480. 

Division, of external sphincter for fis¬ 
sure, 291. 
for fistula, 298. 
of narrow meatus, 217. 
of nerves, 476. 
of radial nerve, 329. 
of Steno’s duct, 16. 
of tendons, 476. 
of tendons of wrist, 329. 
of ulnar nerve, 329. 
of urethra, 217. 

Dorsal hernia, 196. 

Dorsal incision for phimosis, 246. 

Dose of stovain, 743. 

Double oblique circular bandage of the 
head, 605. 

Double roller bandage, 598. 
of head, 611. 

Douches, astringent, in leucorrhea, 265. 

Drain for abscess of breast, 173. 
handkerchief, 579. 
horsehair, 579. 

Drainage after extraction of foreign 
bodies, 338. 

for suppuration in joint, 425. 
in alveolar abscess, 44. 
in suppurative wound, 761. 
of abscess cavity, 419, 761. 
of antrum of Highmore, 54. 
of felon, 412. 
of frontal sinus, 54. 
of ischiorectal abscess, 294. 
of joint, 336. 
of scalp wound, 3. 
of sebaceous cyst, 70. 

Drainage tubes, 576. 
for empyema, 177. 
of glass, 576. 
of soft rubber, 577. 

Draining a wound, 759. 

Drains, 576. 


Drains, cigarette, 578. 
for wounds, 576. 
gauze, 578, 760. 
of gutta-percha tissue, 577. 
when employed, 759. 

Dressing, antiseptic, for burns, 28. 
cotton-collodion, 766. 
for skin grafts, 774. 
for wounds, 563, 765. 
of dry gauze, 765. 
of stump, 688. 
oily, for burns, 26, 768. 
surgical, 563. 
wet, 766. 

Drop-finger, 360. 
operation for, 361. 
radiograph of, 362. 

Drugs in gonorrhea, 214. 

Drum membrane, incision of, 51. 

Dry-cupping, 791. 

Dry dressing, on a suppurating wound, 
effect of, 419. 
gauze dressing, 765. 
tenosynovitis, 344. 

Dupuytren’s contraction of the palmar 
fascia, 465. 

Duration of a chancre, 225. 

Dysmenorrhea, 266. 

Ear, boils of, 37. 

calcareous nodules in, 91. 
congenital cleft of, 116. 
congenital sinus near, 76. 
deformities of, 116. 

congenital, 116. 
dermoid cyst of, 75. 
fibrolipoma of, 80. 
foreign bodies in, 10. 
frostbite of, 30. 
hematoma of, 4. 
incision of membrane of, 51. 
inflammation of, 51. 

Ear-wax, extraction of, 10. 

Early diagnosis, of epithelioma of 
tongue, 103. 

of malignant tumors of breast, 188. 

Early operation for epithelioma, 97. 

Eccentric figure of eight bandage, of 
elbow, 654. 
of heel, 683. 




INDEX 


817 


Eccentric figure Of eight bandage, of 
knee, 675. 

Ecchymosis after fracture, 364. 
subconjunctival, 2. 

Eczema distinguished from dermatitis, 
432. 

from erysipelas, 432. 
from urticaria, 432. 
of external genitals, 222. 
of face, 57. 

of fingers, syphilitic, 432. 
of hand, 431. 
of leg, 519. 
of penis, 223. 
of scalp, 57. 
of vulva, 261. 

Edema after circumcision, 250. 
of leg, how overcome, 523. 
of penis and scrotum in burn, 211. 
Effect of feces in rectum, 311. 
Effusion into shoulder-joint, 345. 

of serum .into a joint, 339. 

Elastic stocking after ulcer of leg, 527. 
Elasticity of skin flaps, 773. 

Elbow, concentric figure of eight 
bandage of, 654. 
dislocations of, 351. 
eccentric figure of eight bandage of, 
654. 

miner’s, 346. 

Elbow-joint, resection of, after frac¬ 
ture, 376. 

Electrolysis for angioma, 81. 
Ellsberg’s method of sterilization of 
catgut, 573. 

Elongation of tendon, 333. 

of uvula, 110. 

Empyema, 175. 

drainage tubes for, 177. 
exploratory puncture in, 175. 
forced expiration after operation 
for, 177. 

operation for, 177. 

Endocervicitis, 264. 

gonorrheal, 265. 

Endometritis, 265. 

Enlarged glands, in carcinoma of 
breast, 189. 
glands of neck, 140. 

Epididymis, tubercular nodules in, 229. 


Epididymis, in gonorrhea, 216. 

Epinephrin,in local anesthesia, 756,758. 

Epiphysis, separation of, 370. 

Epispadias, 252. 

Epithelioma, arsenious acid for, 104. 
diagnosis of, 95. 
early operation for, 97. 
error in diagnosis of, 98. 
lymph-glands in, 100. 
mistaken for a wart, 95. 
of back, 190. 
of cheek, 96. 
of face, 92. 

removal of, by caustics, 103. 
of hand, 460. 
of head, 92. 
of lip, 93, 97. 

operation for, 101. 
of lower lip, removal of, 101. 
of nose, 95. 
of penis, 233. 
of scalp, 97. 
of tongue, 98, 103. 
lymph-glands in, 103. 
operation for, 100. 
papillomatous type of, 94. 
precancerous stage of, 97. 
removal of tongue for, 103. 
syphilis and, 98. 
ulceration of, 95. 

X-ray for, 104. 

Epithelium, growth of, 29. 

Epulis, 90. 

spindle-cell sarcoma and, 90. 

Erosion of cervix, 264. 

Erysipelas, distinguished from eczema, 
432. 

of face, 35. 
of hand, 400. 
treatment for, 35. 

Erysipeloid of hand, 401. 

Esophagus, foreign body in, 118. 
wounds of, 119. 

Estimate of range of motion in an 
affected joint, 441. 

Eversion of eyelid, 9. 
of lids, 108. 

Evulsion of vas deferens, 230. 

Examination, knee-chest position in 
rectal, 282. 




818 


INDEX 


Examination, lateral recumbent posi¬ 
tion in rectal, 280. 
of anus, 280. 
of rectum, 280. 
of shoulder-joint, 341. 
of urethra for stricture, 217. 
squatting position in rectal, 281. 
vaginal and rectal, combined, 305. 
with a probe for fistula, 296. 

Examinations in injury of hip, 487. 

Excision, of a carbuncle, 128. 
of fistula in ano, 298. 
of hemorrhoid, 310. 
of scrotum in variococele, 244. 

Excoriation of breast, 172. 

Exostosis of jaw, 91. 

Exploratory puncture in empyema, 
175. 

Exstrophy of bladder, 252. 

External and internal causes of gan¬ 
grene, 513. 

External hemorrhoids, 309. 

External proctotomy, 306. 

External urethrotomy for retention, 

220 . 

Extraction, of decayed tooth, 45. 
of foreign body from the rectum, 
286. 

of foreign body from urethra, 207. 
of pin from urethra, 207. 
of ear-wax, 10. 
of ingrowing lashes. 51. 

Extravasation of urine, 210. 

Exuberant granulations, 458. 

Eye, figure of eight bandage of, 614. 
foreign bodies of, 8. 
inflammations of, 47. 
wounds of, 14. 

Eye-lashes, ingrowing, 50. 
extraction of, 5. 

Eyelid, abscess of, 37. 
boil of, 37. 
eversion of, 9. 

Eyelids, granular, 49. 

Face, abrasions of, 7. 
abscess of, 38. 
acne of, 32. 

acquired deformities of, 108. 
actinomycosis of, 65. 


Face, angioma of, 80. 
anthrax of, 59. 
boils of, 36. 
burns of, 25. 

congenital deformities of, 112. 
eczema of, 57. 
epithelioma of, 92. 
erysipelas of, 35. 
furuncle of, 36. 
herpes of, 31. 

impetigo contagiosa of, 32. 

lipoma of, 78. 

lupus of, 64. 

milium of, 66. 

mole of, 76. 

nevus of, 80. 

noma of, 59. 

papilloma of, 76. 

plastic surgery of, 776. 

removal of malignant tumors of, 92. 

rodent ulcer of, 94. 

tuberculosis of, 63. 

ulcers of, 59. 

False crepitus, 367. 

False point of motion, proof of frac¬ 
ture, 366. 

Fascia, Dupuytren’s contraction of 
palmar, 465. 

Fastening a bandage, 602. 

Feces, impacted in rectum, 286. 

Felon, 407, 411. 
drainage of, 412. 

Female, catheterization of, 273. 
chancre of genital organs of, 268. 
chronic gonorrhea in, 264. 
syphilis in, 268. 
treatment of gonorrhea in, 262. 

Female genitals, hemorrhage from, 257. 

Female urethra, dilatation of, 260. 

Femoral hernia, 198. 

Femur, fracture of, 497. 
impacted, 489. 
neck of, unimpacted, 489. 
sarcoma of, 492. 

Fenestra in a plaster splint, 589. 

Fibrolipoma, of ear, 80. 
of finger, 457. 
of hand, 452. 
of head, 79. 
of leg, 541. 





INDEX 


819 


Fibrolipoma, of wrist, 454. 

Fibrolipomata of back, 185. 

Fibroma, 140. 
of finger, 452. 
of hand, 452. 
of leg, 541. 
of neck, 140. 
of skin, 76. 
of trunk, 185. 

Fibula, fracture of, 502. 

Field of operation, cleansing of, 752. 

Figure of eight bandage, of ankle, 
679. 

of both axillae, 626. 

of both eyes, 615. 

of both knees, 676. 

of eye, 614. 

of finger, 662. 

of fingers and wrist, 663. 

of foot and leg, 680. 

of forearm, 656. 

of forehead and chin, 620. 

of hand, 658. 

of head, 608. 

of leg, 677. 

of neck and axilla, 624. 

Figure of eight turn of bandage, 600. 

Filigrees, of silver wire, 576. 

Finger, abscess of, 405. 
amputation of, 390. 
baseball, 361. 
carbolic gangrene of, 396. 
cellulitis of, 402. 
chancre of, 436. 
compound fracture of, 387. 
congenital hypertrophy of, 469. 
crushed, 387. 

different methods of amputation of, 
391. 

dislocation of, 357. 
drop, 360. 
fibrolipoma of, 457. 
fibroma of, 452. 
figure of eight bandage of, 662. 
frost-bite of, 394. 
gangrene of, 395. 
incision for abscess of, 408, 413. 
for dislocation of, 360. 
for suppuration of, 411, 
mallet, 361. 


Finger, minute wounds of, 331. 
osteoma of, 456. 
posterior dislocation of, 358. 
pus in, 405. 

radiograph of lateral dislocation of, 
359. 

reattachment of severed, 389. 
recurrent bandage of, 664. 
sarcoma of, 462. 

section of, to show sites of abscess, 
406. 

spiral reverse bandage of, 661. 
sprain of, 339. 
supernumerary, 468. 
suppuration in joint of, 422. 
syphilitic eczema of, 432. 
tin splint for suppuration in a joint 
of, 425. 

treatment for dislocation of, 359. 

for gangrene of, 397. 
web, 467. 

Fingers, action of flexors of, 329. 

injured by a buzzsaw, 388. 

Fingers and wrist, figure of eight 
bandage of, 663. 

Fissure of anus, 289. 

Fissure, division of external sphincter 
for, 291. 

home treatment of, 290. 
stretching of sphincter ani for, 291. 
treatment of, 290. 

Fissures, applications for, 290. 

Fistula, blind external, 297. 

examination with a probe for, 296. 
in ano, 295, 298. 
complete, 298. 

dilatation of sphincter for, 297. 
division of sphincter for, 298. 
excision of, 298. 
hot sitz bath for, 297. 

incision of, 297. 
mammary, 173. 
of urethra, 252. 
of vagina, 277. 
symptoms of, 296. 
treatment for, 297. 

Flannel bandage for ulcer of leg, 527. 
Flannel bandages, 568. 

Canton, 569. 






820 


INDEX 


Flatfoot, 556. 

gypsum splints for, 559. 
imprint of, 557. 
of transverse arch, 560. 
rigidity in, 557. 
tests of, 557. 
treatment for, 558. 

Fleas, bites of, 171. 

Flexor tendons of fingers, action of, 
329. 

Floating cartilage, 484. 
of knee, 485, 491. 
removal of, 485. 

Floating patella, demonstration of, 490. 
Fluctuation, in lymph gland, 141. 
in hydrocele, 237. 
in lipoma, 78. 
in tuberculous joint, 442. 

Fluid from joint, aspiration of, 484. 
in knee-joint, removal of, 500. 
in prepatellar bursitis, 491. 
in tunica vaginalis, 236. 

Folding gauze sponges, 565. 

Foot, abscess of, 518. 
blisters of, 471. 
burns of, 513. 
callus of, 537. 

deformities of, acquired, 543. 

congenital, 561. 
frost-bite of, 511. 
ganglion of, 540. 
hematoma of, 472. 
injuries of, 471. 
perforating ulcer of, 529. 
position of, during the application 
of plaster, 505. 
spica bandage of, 685. 
tumors of, 537. 

Foot and leg, figure of eight bandage 
of, 680. 

Forced expiration after operation for 
empyema, 177. 

Forceps dressing of wounds, 770. 
Forearm, abscess in, 422. 

figure of eight bandage of, 656. 
position of hand in fracture of, 378. 
spiral reverse bandage of, 655. 
Forefinger, dislocation of, 357. 

radiograph of, 357. 

Forehead, lipoma of, 78. 


Forehead and chin, figure of eight 
bandage of, 620. 

Foreign bodies, drainage after extrac¬ 
tion of, 338. 
in bladder, 208, 259. 
in bronchi, 118. 
in ear, 10. 
in esophagus, 118. 
in eye, 8. 
in larynx, 117. 
in mouth, 12. 
in nose, 10. 
in rectum, 286. 
in throat, 12. 
in urethra, 207, 258. 
in vagina, 258. 
in wounds of hand, 336. 
of penis, 206. 

Foreign body, scar mistaken for, 336. 
of bronchi located by X-ray, 118. 
tracheotomy for, 118. 

Foreskin, incision of, 246. 
reduction of retracted, 205. 
retracted after circumcision, 250. 
retraction of, at birth, 245. 
sebaceous material beneath, 231. 
stretching of, 245. 

Foreskin and penis, adhesions between, 
245. 

Fourtailed bandage of jaw, 617. 
Fracture, active motions after, 370. 
altered percussion in, 367. 
dislocation and, of elbow, 353. 
crepitus a proof of, 367. 
deformity after, 364. 
ecchymosis after, 364. 
immobility in, 369. 
impacted, of humerus, 372. 
imperfect reduction after, 375. 
loss of function a sign of, 368. 
measurements for, 365. 
rear a joint, 366. 
of anatomical neck of humerus, 372. 
of ankle-joint, correct position of 
foot in, 507. 
of astragalus, 507. 
of carpus, 384. 
of cervical spine, 124. 
of clavicle, 163. / 

of femur, 497. 




INDEX 


821 


Fracture, of fibula, 502. 
of fibula and tibia, 504. 
of forearm, position of hand in, 378. 
of frontal bone, 18. 
of great trochanter, 497. 
of head of radius, 377. 
of humerus, musculospiral nerve in¬ 
jured in, 374. 
of hyoid, 123. 
of inferior maxilla, 19. 
of jaw, treatment for, 20. 
of larynx, 124. 

of lower end of humerus, 374. 

of lower end of radius, 380. 

of lower jaw, splint for, 22. 

of malar bone, 18. 

of malleoli, strap splints for, 506. 

of metacarpal, 384. 

of metatarsals, 509. 

of nasal bones, 18. 

of neck, 124. 

of neck of femur, 489. 

of neck of radius, 376. 

of olecranum, 376. 

of os calcis, 508. 

of patella, 498. 

adhesive plaster for, 499. 
operation for, 500. 
plaster splint for, 500. 
of penis, 205. 
of phalanges, 509. 
of phalanx, 385. 

of radius, deformity following, 380. 

impacted, 380. 
of ribs, 167. 
of scapula, 167. 
of shaft of humerus, 373. 
of skull, 17. 
of sternum, 167. 
of superior maxilla, 19. 
of surgical neck of humerus, 372. 
of thyroid, 124. 

of tibia, delayed union in, 501. 

of trachea, 124. 

of ulna, 376. 

of ulna or radius, 378. 

of upper end of humerus, 371. 

of vertebra, 168. 

old Colles’s, 382. 

pain in, 363. 


Fracture, passive motion after, 370. 
restoration of function after, 369. 
shortening a sign of, 365. 
signs of, 363. 

suppuration in a compound, 386. 
swelling after, 364. 
treatment of, 368. 

X-ray examination of, 365. 
Fractured jaw, bandage for, 21. 
Fractures, anesthesia in diagnosis of, 
368. 

compound, of upper extremity, 386. 

diagnosis of, 363. 

green-stick, 371. 

involving ankle-joint, 504. 

of ankle, displacement in, 504. 

of humerus, 371. 

of upper extremity, 363. 

Frontal bone, fracture of, 18. 

Frontal sinuses, suppuration in, 53. 
Frost-bite, amputation for, 394. 
gangrene due to, 30. 
of ears, 30. 
of fingers, 394. 
of foot, 511. 
of hands, 394. 
of head, 30. 
of nose, 30. 
treatment for, 394. 

Function, of dislocated joint, 350. 

of joint, tested, 488. 

Furuncle, 126. 
of arm, 404. 
of face, 36. 

Ganglion, 445. 

injection treatment for, 447. 
of foot, 540. 
of wrist, 445. 
operation for, 446. 
origin of, 445. 
recurrence of, 447. 
treatment for, 446. 

Gangrene,' complicated with cellulitis 
397. 

from external and internal causes 
513. 

from carbolic acid, 395. 
from frostbite, 30. 
of finger, 395. 






822 


INDEX 


Gangrene of finger, following cellulitis, 
403. 

of toes, 513. 

Gangrenous hemorrhoid, 314. 

Gastrocncmio-semimembranosous bur¬ 
sitis, 481. 

Gauntlet bandage, 663. 

Gauze, absorbent, 565. 
for bandages, 565. 
in strips, 567. 

introduction of, within the uterus, 
258. 

Gauze bandages, 567. 

Gauze drains, 567, 578. 

Gauze sponges, 565. 

Genitals, abscess of, 212. 
burns of, 210. 
cellulitis of, 264. 
contusions of, 255. 
cystic tumors of, 231. 
eczema of, 222. 
solid tumors of, 232. 
wounds of, 208. 

female, acquired deformities of, 272. 
congenital deformities of, 277. 
external benign tumors of, 270. 
inflammations of, 260. 
injuries of, 255. 

male, congenital deformities of, 244. 
inflammations of, 210. 
injuries of, 203. 
syphilis of, 225. 
tumors of, 231. 

Gibson’s bandage of lower jaw, 619. 

Gingivitis, 55. 

Gland, hematoma of mammary, 153. 
incision of a suppurating, 431. 
malignant cervical, 145. 
removal of a suppurating, 431. 
thyroid, tumors of, 145. 

Glanders, 65. 

Glands, lymphatic, swelling of, from 
decayed teeth, 41. 
parotid, tumors of, 107. 
suppurating tuberculous,of neck, 144. 

Glass drainage tubes, 567. 

Glass in wound, 336. 

Gleet, 215. 

Glossitis, syphilitic, 63. 


Glover’s needles for skin sutures, 762. 

Goiter, 145. 

Gonococci, absence of, in simple ure¬ 
thritis, 212. 
in prostatic ducts, 216. 
in rectal discharge, 299. 
in specific urethritis, 213. 

Gonorrhea, 213. 

4 

astringents in, 215. 
autoinfection in, 49. 
bladder affected in, 215. 
complications or, 215. 
cystitis in, 215. 
epididymitis in, 216. 
injections in, 214. 
irrigation in, 213. 
irrigations of bladder in, 264. 

of rectum, 215. 
of rectum, 298. 

treatment for, 299. 
of vulva, 262. 
rest in, 214. 
treatment for, 213. 

Gonorrheal arthritis, 433. 

not always monarticular, 533. 
of knee, 533. 
endocervicitis, 265. 
ophthalmia, 48. 
urethritis, 263. 
vaginitis, 261. 
vulvitis, 262. 

Gout, hot applications in, 435. 
in lower extremity, 534. 
of hand, 435. 

Gouty deposit, removal of, 435. 

Gradual dilatation, of anus, 287. 
of stricture of rectum, 306. 

Granular conjunctivitis, 49. 

Granular lids, 49. 

Granulations, exuberant, 458. 

Granuloma, 458. 
of hand, 458. 
of umbilicus, 183. 

Great trochanter, relation of, to ilium, 
488. 

Green-stick fracture, 371. 

Groin, ascending spica bandage of, 665. 
descending spica bandage of, 666. 

Groins, ascending spica bandage of 
both, 667. 




INDEX 


823 


Groins, descending spica bandage of 
both, 669. 

Growth of epithelium, 29. 
in ulcer of leg, 524. 
of lipoma, 79. 

Gumma, of hand, 436. 
of rectum, 301. 
of scalp, 63. 
of testicle, 227. 

Gums, cure of scrofulous, 106. 

Gunshot wound of back, 156. 

Gutta-perclia drains, 577. 
tissue, 571. 

Gypsum, use of, 582. 

Gypsum bandage, application of, 585. 
making dart in, 586. 

Gypsum bandages, 582. 
wire cloth in, 591. 

Gypsum splint, reenforcing of, 5*91. 
of trunk, 594. 
removal of, 588. 

Gypsum splints, for tlatfoot, 559. 
molded, 589. 

Hallux rigidus, 554. 
valgus, 550. 

operation for, 552. 
splint for, 553. 
suppuration of joint in, 554. 
treatment for, 551. 

Hammer-toe, 554. 

adhesive strips for, 555. 
amputation for, 556. 
incision for, 555. 

Hand, acquired deformities of, 463. 
aneurism of, 448. 
boil of, 405. 
burns of, 393. 
chilblains of, 394. 
cellulitis of, 402. 
cicatricial contractions of, 463. 
congenital deformities of, 467. 
contusions of, 324. 
dermatitis of, 400. 
eczema of, 431. 
epithelioma of, 460. 
erysipelas of, 400. 
erysipeloid of, 401. 
fibrolipoma of, 452. 
fibroma of, 452. 


Hand, figure of eight bandage of, 658. 
foreign bodies in wounds of, 336. 
frost-bite of, 394. 
gout of, 435. 
granuloma of, 458. 
gununa of, 436. 
inflammation of, 399. 
metastatic carcinoma of, 460. 
needle in, 336. 
nevus of, 449. 
or arm, bullet in, 337. 
papilloma of, 455. 
punctured wounds of, 328. 
lcmoval of foreign bodies from, 337. 
rice bodies of, 439. 
sarcoma of, 462. 
spiral reverse bandage of, 659. 
suppuration in, 412. 
suppurative arthritis of, 423. 
suppurative synovitis of, 423. 
syphilis of, 435. 

too many accessory tendons of, 469. 
traumatic ulcers of, 331. 
tumors of, 445. 
varix of, 449. 
warts of, 458. 

wet dressing for wounds of, 330. 
Handkerchief drain, 579. 

Hands of operator, how treated, 753. 
Hang-nail, infection through, 407. 

suppuration m, 410. 

Harelip, 112. 

operation for, 113. 

Head, acute inflammations of, 31. 
bandages of, 603. 
benign solid tumors of, /6. 
burns of, 25. 
cellulitis of, 33. 
chronic inflammations of, 59. 
contusions of, 1. 
crossed circular bandage of, 605. 
cystic tumors of, 66. 
dermoid cyst of, 72. 
double oblique circular bandage of, 
605. 

double roller bandage of, 611. 
epithelioma of, 92. 
fibrolipoma of, 79. 
figure of eight bandage of, 608. 
frostbite of, 30. 






824 


INDEX 


Head, inflammations of, 25. 
injuries of, 1. 
knotted bandage of, 607. 
malignant tumors of, 92. 
oblique circular bandage of, 604. 
occipitofrontal bandage of, 603. 
papilloma of, 76. 
position of, in wryneck, 149. 
recurrent bandage of, 609. 
partial recurrent bandage of, 613. 
sarcoma of, 104. 
sebaceous cyst of, 66. 
single roller bandage of, 609. 
syphilis of, 59. 
tumors of, 66. 
wounds of, 13. 

Head and neck, anterior figure of eight 
bandage of, 623. 
posterior figure of eight bandage 
of, 621. 

Heel, eccentric figure of eight bandage 
of, 683. 

modified figure of eight bandage of, 
685. 

painful, 561. 

Hematocele, 204. 

Hematoma, 2. 

beneath nail, 325. 
of arm, 325. 
of ear, 4. 
of foot, 472. 
of head, 2. 

of mammary gland, 153. 
of new-born, 4. 
of penis, 204. 
of scalp, 3, 17. 
of scrotum, 204. 
of skin, 326. 
of vagina, 255. 
under toe nail, 472. 

Hemorrhage, control of, 758. 
following circumcision, 250. 
from anus, 284. 
from female genitals, 257. 
from nipple, 189. 
from nose, 5. 
from rectum, 284, 313. 
after operation, 285. 
treatment for, 285. 
from umbilicus, 156. 


Hemorrhage, hemorrhoids a cause of, 
285. 

internal symptoms of, 155. 
in the orbit, 17. 
into penis, 205. 

suprarenal extract to control, 258. 
Hemorrhoids, 308. 

a cause of hemorrhage, 285. 
acute, treatment for, 310. 
acute external, 309. 
chronic, 310. 
chronic external, 312. 
chronic symptoms of, 312. 
constipation in, 312. 
cutaneous, 310. 

discharge of blood clot from, 310. 
excision of, 316. 
gangrenous, 314. 
internal, 311. 

local treatment for, 313. 
ligation of, 315. 

non-operative treatment for, 313. 
postoperative treatment for, 316. 
pruritus due to, 287. 
reduction of, 311. 
rupture of, 310. 
strangulation of, 311. 

Hernia, 194. . 

at birth, 194. 
diagnosis of, 194. 
dorsal, 196. 
femoral, 198. 
inguinal, 197. 

operation for, 197. 
impulse on coughing in, 195. 
operation for, 195. 
rectal, 321. 
strangulated, 198. 
truss for, 198. 
umbilical, 196. 

undescended testicle and, 254. 
Herpes in acute rhinitis, 53. 
of face, 31. 
of penis, 211. 
zoster, 172. 

Hip, treatment for sprain of, 489. 

tuberculosis of, 535. 

Hip-joint, sprains of, 486. 

Hocks in place of skin-sutures, 765. 
Hordeolum, 37. 





INDEX 


825 


Horsehair, 575. 
drain, 579. 

for suture of skin, 762. 

Hot applications in gout, 434. 

Hot fomentations for sprain of ankle, 
495. 

Hot wet dressing, 127. 

Houston's valves, 306. 

Humerus, deformity following frac¬ 
ture of lower end of, 375. 
dislocation of, 350. 
fractures of, 371. 
impacted of, 372. 
injury of musculospiral nerve in, 
374. 

non-union after, 373. 
of anatomical neck of, 372. 
of lower end of, 374. 

> of shaft of, 373. 

of surgical neck of, 372. 
of upper end of, 371. 
shoulder cap for, 372. 

St imson ’s method for reducing dis¬ 
located, 351. 

Hydrocele, 236. 

aspiration and injection for, 239. 

congenital, 240. 

differential diagnosis of, 238. 

fluctuation in, 237. 

light test for, 238. 

of the cord, 240. 

differential diagnosis of, 241. 
position of testicle in, 238. 
radical treatment for, 240. 
recurrence of, 240. 
treatment for, simplest, 238. 
unusual types of, 240. 

Hymen, imperforate, 278. 

rupture of, 255. 

Hyoid, fracture of, 123. 
suture of, 123. 

Hypertrophic acne of nose, 83. 
Hypertrophy, of breast, 187. 
of finger, 469. 
of inferior turbinate, 53. 
of lingual tonsils, 87. 
of prostate, 235. 
of toe, 561. 
of tonsil, 86. 


Hypertrophy, of tonsil and malignant 
growths, 107. 

Hypodermoclysis, 786. 

Hypospadias, 252. 

Ice-bag for sprain of ankle, 495. 

Immobility after fracture, 369. 

Impacted feces in rectum, 286. 

Impacted fracture of femur, 489. 
of radius, 380. 

Imperfect reduction after fracture, 375. 

Imperforate anus, 322. 

Imperforate hymen, 278. 

Impetigo contagiosa of face, 32. 

Imprint of flatfoot, 557. 

Impulse of coughing, in hernia, 195. 
in varicocele, 243. 

Incised wound of joint, 335. 

Incision and suture for web-finger, 467. 

Incision, for abscess in little finger, 417. 
for abscess, of thumb, 417. 

of finger, 408, 413. 
for alveolar abscess, 46. 
for cellulitis, 398. 
for dislocation, 348. 

of finger, 360. 
for fistula in ano, 297. 
for hammer toe, 555. 
for hematoma beneath nail, 326. 
for phimosis, 248. 

for removal of floating cartilage, 486. 
for suppurating glands of axilla, 430. 
for suppuration of finger, 411. 
m wrist for abscess, 417. 
of bursa, 479. 
of foreskin, 246. 
of membrane of ear, 51. 
of pharynx for abscess, 56. 
of scalp, 3. 

of suppurating gland, 431. 
to open knee-joint, 486. 

Inclusion cyst of palm, 450. 

Incontinence, of childhood, 220, 273. 
of anus following operation, 321. 
of anus, operation for, 321. 

purse-string suture for, 322. 
of old age, 221. 
of sphincter ani, 321. 
of urine, 220, 272. 
vesical calculus a cause of, 221. 




826 


INDEX 


Infants, treatment for prolapse of rec¬ 
tum in, 318. 

Infancy, retention cysts of, 182. 

Infected insect bites, 518. 

Infection, following circumcision, 250. 
following paracentesis, 201. 
in wound of joint, 475. 
in wounds, 399. 
mixed, 226. 
of cervical gland, 141. 
through an insect bite, 171. 
through hang-nail, 407. 
toothache a sign of, 45. 

Infectiousness of discharge in chan¬ 
croid, 224. 

Inferior maxilla, fracture of, 19. 

Inferior maxillary nerve, injected with 
alcohol, 792. 

Inferior turbinate, hypertrophy of, 53. 

Inflammation, acute, 31. 
in ulcer of leg, 523. 
of anus, 286. 

of Bartholin’s gland, 263. 
of ear, 51. 
of eye, 47. 

of female genitals, 260. 
of hand, 399. 
of head, 25. 

chronic, 59. 
of leg, 532. 
of male genitals, 210. 
of mouth, 55. 
of nose, 53. 
of penis, 210. 

. of rectum, 288. 

of sebaceous cyst, 68. 
of skin, 57. 
of throat, 55. 
of urethra, 213. 
types of local, 399. 

Infusion, 786. 

Ingrowing lashes, 50. 

Ingrown nail, 544. 
operation for, 547. 
result after, 548. 
treatment for, 546. 

Inguinal adenitis with chancroid, 223. 

Inguinal canal, large, 253. 

Inguinal glands, infected, removal of, 
224. 


Inguinal hernia, 197. 

Injection of median cephalic vein, 785. 
of alcohol for neuralgia, 792. 
of hot water for angioma, 81. 
of cocain, 754. 
of saline solution, 786. 
of salvarsan, 781. 

Injection treatment of a ganglion, 447. 

of neuralgia, 792. 

Injections in gonorrhea, 214. 

Injuries and inflammations, of neck, 
117. 

Injuries, of anus, 280. 
of arm, 324. 

of cord in fracture of neck, 124. 
of female genito-urinary organs, 255. 
of foot, 471. 
of head, 1. 
of leg, 471. 

of lower extremity, 471. 
of male genito-urinary organs, 203. 
of rectum, 280. 
of testicle, 203. 
of trunk, 153. 
of upper extremity, 324. 
to fingers from buzz-saw, 388. 
Injury, abdominal rigidity after, 155. 
by a mangle, 393. 
of hip, examinations in, 487. 
of musculospiral nerve in fracture 
of humerus, 374. 
of periosteum of a rib, 167. 
of spine, tests for, 161. 

treatment for, 162. 
producing atrophy of the deltoid, 
342. 

Insect bites, infection caused by 
scratching of, 171. 
infected, 518. 

Inspection of anus, 280. 

of rectum through speculum, 283. 
Insertion of needle for lumbar punc¬ 
ture, 799. 

of tracheotomy tube, 119. 
Instruments for minor operations, 753. 
for removal of adenoids, 90. 
for removal of tonsil, 88. 
for tracheotomy, 120. 

Interdental splint, 22. 

Intermuscular lipoma, 140. 



INDEX 


827 


Internal hemorrhage, symptoms of, 155. 
Internal hemorrhoids, 311. 

Internal proctotomy, 306. 

Internal urethrotomy, 218. 

Interrupted suture, 761. 

Intertrigo, 286. 

Intestinal obstruction in stricture of 
rectum, 304. 

Intestine, contusion of, 156. 

slough of, following contusion, 156. 
Intubation, 122. 

7 • 

tube, withdrawal of, 122. 

Iodoform poisoning, 31. 

Irrigation, in gonorrhea, 213. 
of abscess, 772. 

of bladder in chronic gonorrhea, 264. 
of joint, 335, 484. 
of rectum, continuous, 289. 
in gonorrhea, 215. 

Ischiorectal abscess, 291. 

tuberculous, 295. 

Itching about anus, 287. 

and eczema in ulcer of leg, 524. 
of the vulva, 260. 

Itching piles, 313. 

Jacket of plaster of Paris, 594. 

Jaw, angiosarcoma of, 106. 

Barton’s bandage of, 617. 
complications of fractures of, 23. 
dislocation of, 24. 
exostosis of, 91. 
four-tailed bandage of, 617. 

Gibson’s bandage of, 619. 
necrosis of, 42. 

non-union after fracture of, 23. 
osteoma of, 91. 
sequestrum of, 43. 
subluxation of, 24. 
treatment for fracture of, 20. 

Joint, dislocated, function of, 350. 
drain of, 336. 

drainage for suppuration in, 425. 
effusion of serum into, 339. 
estimate of range of a motion in, 441. 
fluctuation in tuberculous, 442. 
fracture near, 366. 
incised wound of, 335. 
infection in wound of, 475. 
irrigation of, 335, 484. 


Joint, punctured wound of, 475. 
Joints, local heat in tuberculosis of, 441. 
of foot, chronic suppuration in, 532. 
wounds of, 335. 

Kangaroo tendon, 574. 

Keloid, 184. 
of trunk, 184. 
treatment of, 184. 

Knee, concentric figure of eight band¬ 
age of, 674. 

eccentric figure of eight bandage of, 
675. 

floating cartilage of, 491. 
gonorrheal arthritis of, 533. 
rupture of ligament of, 496. 
sarcoma of, 542. 
sprain of, 489. 

Knee-chest position in rectal examina¬ 
tion, 282. 

Knee-joint, acute suppuration in, 491. 
demonstration of fluid in, 491. 
floating cartilage in, 485. 
incision to open, 486. 
removal of fluid from, 500. 
suppurative synovitis of, 532. 
wound of, 475. 

Knees, figure of eight bandage of 
both, 676. 

Knot, tying of, under tension, 764. 
Knotted bandage of head, 607. 
Koelier’s method of reduction in dis¬ 
location, 351. 

Laceration of the perineum, acute, 256. 
of long duration, 275. 
treatment for, 256. 

Lamb’s wool, 565. 

Larynx, foreign body in, 117. 
fracture of, 124. 

Lateral incisions for phimosis, 247. 
Lateral ligament of knee, rupture of, 
496. 

Lateral recumbent position in rectal 
examination, 280. 

Leeching, 791. 

Leg, abscess in, 517. 
aneurism of, 540. 
burns of, 513. 
carcinoma of, 543. 



828 


INDEX 


Leg, chronic inflammations of, 532. 
eczema of, 519. 
fibrolipoma of, 541. 
fibroma of, 541. 
figure of eight bandage of, 677. 
injuries of, 471. 
lipoma of, 541. 
lymphadenitis of, 517. 
lymphangitis of, 515. 
phlebitis of, 515. 
rupture of vein of, 474. 
sarcoma of, 542. 
sebaceous cyst of, 540. 
serous synovitis of, 483. 
spiral reverse bandage of, 678. 
subperiosteal hematoma of, 473. 
thrombosis of, 515. 
tumors of, 537. 
ulcer of, 519. 

Lesions of syphilis in lower extremity, 
534. 

Leucoplakia, 103. 
of tongue, 98. 

Leucorrhea, 265. 

Leukemia, cervical glands enlarged in, 
145. 

Lids, eversion of, 108. 

Ligament of knee, rupture of, 491. 

Ligation, of dilated veins in varicocele, 
244. 

of hemorrhoids, 315. 
of varicose veins, 539. 
of vein, 474. 
of vessels, 332. 

Ligatures, 571. 
tying of, 758. 

Light test for hydrocele, 238. 

Limbs, measurements of, 487. 

Linen thread, 576. 

Lip, abscess of, 38. 
epithelioma of, 93, 97. 

removal of, 101. 
sunburn of, 29. 
syphilis of, 59. 

Lipoma, 137. 

blunt dissection for, 137. 
diffuse, 139. 
dissection of, 79. 
fluctuation in, 78. 
growth of, 79. 


Lipoma, intermuscular, 140. 
of arm, 451. 
of face, 78. 
of forehead, 78. 
of leg, 541. 
of neck, 137. 
of trunk, 185. 
simple, .137. 
treatment of, 137. 

Lips, thick, 115. 

Local anesthesia, 754. 

Local anesthetic for tonsillectomy, 89. 
Local heat in tuberculosis of joints, 441. 
Local treatment for internal hemor¬ 
rhoids, 313. 
for rheumatism, 433. 

Loss of function, a sign of fracture, 
368. 

in tuberculous joint, 442. 

Lower extremity, acute rheumatism of, 
533. 

amputation of, 509. 
bandages of, 665. 
bursas of, 476. 
carcinoma of, 543. 
cellulitis of, 515. 
contusions of, 471. 
dislocations of, 497. 
gout in, 534. 
injury of, 471. 
lesions of syphilis in, 534. 
lymphangitis of, 515. 
sarcoma of, 542. 
sprains of, 486. 
suppurative synovitis of, 532. 
tuberculosis of, 535. 
wounds of, 475. 

Lower jaw, complications of fracture 
of the, 23. 

Lower lip, cleft of, 114. 

Ludoviei, angina, 131. 

Lumbago, 158. 

Lumbar puncture, 799. 

insertion of needle for, 800. 
Lumbar spine, section of, 798. 

transverse section of, 798. 
“Lumpy jaw,” 65. 

Lupus of back, 178. 
of face, 64. 

Lymphadenitis, acute, 140. 



INDEX 


829 


Lymphadenitis, cervical, 140. 
of arm, 429. 
of axilla, 429. 
of leg, 517. 

treatment for chronic, 142. 
Lymphangitis, of arm, 428. 
of leg, 515. 

of lower extremity, 515. 

Lymph glands, fluctuation in, 141. 
in epithelioma, 100. 

of tongue, 103. 
infection of cervical, 141. 
submaxillary gland mistaken for, 
142. 

Making a dart in a gypsum bandage, 
586. 

Malar bone, fracture of, 18. 

Malignant cervical glands, 145. 
Malignant growth, in mole, 92. 
in wart, 92. 

Malignant tumor, of cervix, treatment 
of, 271. 
of tonsil, 107. 

Malignant tumors, of face, removal of, 
92. 

of head, 92. 
of rectum, 316. 

Mallet-finger, 361. 

Mammary abscess, 173. 
fistula, 173. 

gland, hematcma of, 153. 
tuberculosis of, 180. 

Mandible. See Jaw. 
necrosis of, 42. 
sequestrum of, 43. 

Mangle injury, 393. 

Manipulation for wryneck, 151. 
Many-tailed bandage of abdomen, 650. 
Marginal abscess of anus, 291. 
Massage of prastrate gland, 217. 
Masturbation, circumcision as a cure 
for, 251. 

Materials for a roller bandage, 697. 
Matrix of nail not removed by opera¬ 
tion, 549. 

Mattress stitch of tendon, 333. 
Measurements for fracture, 365. 
of two limbs, 487. 

Measures, to cleanse ulcer of leg, 52o. 


Measures, to overcome chronic edema, 
523. 

to stimulate granulation in ulcer of 
leg, 523. 

Meatus, narrow, 251. 
division of, 217. 

Median cephalic vein, injection into, 
786. 

Melanosarcoma of abdomen, 191. 
Membrane of ear, incision of, 51. 
Meningiti^ after wound of periosteum, 
17. 

Meniscus of knee, displacement of, 491. 
Menstruation, painful, 266. 
Metacarpal, fracture of, 384. 
Metastatic carcinoma of hand, 460. 
Metatarsalgia, 560. 

Metatarsals, fracture of, 509. 
Metatarsophalangeal bursitis, 482. 
Metal drainage tubes, 576. 

Metal splints, 580. 

Method, of holding foot during ap¬ 
plication of plaster, 505. 
of holding trocar and cannula, 200. 
of lengthening a tendon, 464. 
of tying ligatures, 758. 
Micro-organism of syphilis, 225. 
Mikulicz method of drainage, 579. 
Milium of face, 66. 

Miner’s elbow, 346. 

Minor operations, instruments for, 753. 
Minor surgery, results in, 751. 

Minor surgical technique, 751. 

Minute wounds of fingers, 331. 

Mixed infection, 226. 

Modified eccentric figure of eight 
bandage of the heel, 685. 
Molded gypsum splints, 589. 

for fracture of radius, 382. 
Molded plaster splint, 589. 

Mole, caustics not to be used on, 77. 
malignant growth in, 92. 
of face, 76. 
removal of, 78. 
sarcomatous growth of, 77. 
Monochloracetic acid for warts of 
anus, 308. 

Mortality after fracture of the thyroid. 
124. 

Morton’s disease, 560. 



830 


INDEX 


Motion, false point of, a proof of frac¬ 
ture, 366. 

test for a false point of, 366. 

Motoring, a cause of neuritis, 342. 

Mouth, epulis of, 90. 
foreign bodies in, 12. 
inflammations of, 55. 
mucous cyst of, 71. 
patches in, 62. 
tuberculosis of, 64. 
wounds of, 15. s 

Mucous cyst of mouth, 71. 

Mucous patches, about anus, 300. 
in the mouth, 62. 
on the penis and scrotum, 226. 

Multiple lipomata of arm, 452. 

Muscle, rupture of biceps, 327. 

Muscular spasm in tuberculosis, 489. 

Musculospiral nerve injured in frac¬ 
ture of humerus, 374. 

Muslin, oiled, 571. 
unbleached, 568. 
use of, for bandages, 568. 

Myositis, wryneck from, 148. 

Nail, hematoma beneath, 325. 
rate of growth of, 410. 
removal of, in paronychia, 410. 

Nails, vertical, 562. 

Nares, plugging the posterior, 6. 

Narrow meatus, 251. 

Nasal bones, fracture of, 18. 
deformities, 108. 
septum, deviated, 109. 

submucous excision of, 109. 
splint, 19. 
spur, 92. 

Neck, abscesses of, 130. 
acquired deformities of, 147. 
anthrax of, 132. 
arthritis of, 134. 
boil of, 126. 
burns of, 125. 
carbuncle of, 127. 
cellulitis of, 125. 
cicatrices of, 147. 
circular bandage of, 621. 
complete bandage of, 628. 
congenital cysts of, 135. 
contusions of, 117. 


Neck, deep abscess of, 131. 
deep suppuration of, 130. 
dislocation of, 125. 

spontaneously .reduced, 123. 
diffuse lipoma of, 138. 
enlarged glands of, 140. 
fibroma of, 140. 
fracture of, 124. 

injuries and inflammations of, 117. 
injury of cord in fracture of, 124. 
lipoma of, 137. 

removal of enlarged glands from, 
142. 

sebaceous cyst of, 135. 
sprain of, 122. 
shock in, 123. 

treatment for carbuncle of, 127. 
tuberculosis of, 133. 
tuberculous glands of, 142. 
tumors of, 135. 
wounds of, 118. 

Neck and axilla, bandages of, 621. 
figure of eight bandage of, 624. 
oblique circular bandage of, 627. 
Neck and chest, anterior figure of 
eight bandage of, 633. 

Neck of femur, unimpacted fracture 
of, 489. 

Necrosis of bone from pus in a tendon 
sheath, 421. 
of mandible, 42. 

Necrotic bone, probing for, 43. 

Needle in hand, 336. 

Needles, straight and curved, for skin, 
762. 

Neosalvarsan injection, 781. 

Nerve, contusion of, 335. 
division of ulnar, 329. 
injection of alcohol into, 792. 
restoration of function in divided, 
335. 

suture of, 334. 

Nerves, division of, 476. 

Neuralgia of testicle, 206. 

Neuritis, of arm, 342. 

Neurofibroma of arm, 455. 

Nevus of face, 80. 
of hand, 449. 

New-born, hematoma in the, 4. 

Nipple, hemorrhage of, 189. 



INDEX 


831 


Nipple, retraction of, in cancer of 
breast 189. 

Nipples, toughening of, by massage, 
174. 

tieatment for retracted, 174. 

Noma, 59. 

Non-absorbable sutures, 575. 
Non-operative treatment for hemor¬ 
rhoids, 313. 

for stricture of rectum, 305. 
Non-union, after fracture of humerus, 
373. 

in fracture of lower jaw, 23. 
in fracture of radius, 379. 
in fracture of the tibia, 501. 

Nose, boils of, 37. 
deformities of, 108. 
dermoid cyst near, 74. 
deviation of septum of, 109. 
epithelioma of, 95. 
foreign bodies in, 10. 
frostbite of, 30. 
hemorrhage from, 5. 
inflammations of, 53. 
overgrowth of, 83. 
rosacea hypertrophica of, 83. 
spur of, 92. 

submucous excision of septum of, 

109. 

support for sunken, 108. 

Novocain, in local anesthesia, 756. 

Oakum, 565. 

Oblique circular bandage of head, 604. 

of neck and axilla, 627. 

Obstruction of tear-duct, 108. 
Occipitofrontal bandage of head, 603. 
Oiled muslin, 571. 

Oiled paper, 571. 

Oiled silk, 571. 

Oily dressing for burns, 26. 

Ointment dressing, 768. 

Old age, incontinence of, 221. 

Old Colies’s fracture, 383. 

Olecranon bursitis, 346. 
suppurative, 427. 
fracture of, 376. 

Opening an abscess, 771. 
Operating-room, 751. 

Operation, Bottini s, 236. 


Operation, for acne hypertrophica, 85. 
for adenoids, 89. 
for chronic hemorrhoids, 314. 
for cleft palate, 112. 
for dermoid cyst, 75. 
for dislocation of thumb, 357. 
for drop finger, 361. 
for empyema, 177. 
for epithelioma, 100. 
for fracture of patella, 500. 
for ganglion of wrist, 446. 
for hallux valgus, 552. 
for harelip, 113. 
for hernia, 195. 
for incontinence of anus, 321. 
for ingrown nail, 547. 
for inguinal hernia, 197. 
for ischiorectal abscess, 294. 
for phimosis, 246. 
for prolapse of urethra, 275. 
for prolapse of uterus, 277. 
for rectal stricture, 305. 
for sebaceous cyst, 69. 
for ulcer of leg, 528. 
for wryneck, 151. 

incontinence of anus following, 321. 
plastic, 776. 

preparation of patient for, 752. 
solution for, 753. 

Operative technique, 751. 

Operator’s hands, how treated, 753. 

Ophthalmia, gonorrheal, 48. 

Orbit, dermoid cyst of, 74. 
hemorrhage in, 17. 

Orchitis, syphilitic, 226. 

Organ, rupture of intraabdominal, 155. 

Os calcis, fracture of, 508. 

Osteitis deformans, 434. 

Osteoma, of finger, 456. 
of great toe, 541. 
of jaw, 91. 
of tibia, 541. 

Osteomyelitis of arm, 443. 

Otoliths, 91. 

Overextension of thumb, 357. 

Overgrowth of nose, 83. 

Overlapping of turns of a bandage, 
599. 

Paget’s disease, 190. 





832 


INDEX 


Pain in fracture, 363. 

in tuberculous joint, 442. 

Painful heel, 561. 

Palm, inclusion cyst of, 450. 
suppuration in, 414. 
swelling in abscess of, 413. 
Palpation, of axilla, 189. 
of breast, 188. 
of rectum, 281. 
in squatting position, 305. 

Paper, oiled, 571. 

Papilloma, of face, 76. 
of hand, 455. 
of head, 76. 

of lip mistaken for syphilis, 76. 
of penis, 232. 

of skin mistaken for cancer, 77. 
of trunk, 185. 
of vulva, 270. 

Papillomatous type of epithelioma, 94. 
Paracentesis, 199. 

infection following, 201. 
Paraffin-wax, atomizer, 769. 

for burns, 768. 

Paraphimosis, 205. 

Parasites, pruritus due to, 261. 
Paronychia, 407. 
acute, 408. 
chronic, 410. 

removal of old nail in 410. 

Parotid cyst, 72. 

Parotid tumors, 106. 

and lymphatic glands, 107. 

Partial recurrent bandage of head, 
613. 

Passage of steel sound into urethra, 
218. 

of catheter, 274 

Passive motion after fracture, 370. 

after a sprain, 339. 

Patella, fracture of, 498. 

Patient, preparation of, for operation, 
752. 

Pediculi, abscesses from, 130. 

removal of, 130. 

Pediculosis corporis, 171. 

Pelvis, fracture of, with rupture of 
bladder, 210. 

Penetrating wound, of abdomen, 158. 
of chest, 157. 


Penetrating wound, of pericardium, 
157. 

of pleural cavity, 157. 

Penis, carcinoma of, 233. 
chancre of, 225. 
chancroid of, 222. 
contusion of, 203. 
eczema of, 223. 
edema of, in burn, 211. 
epithelioma of, 233. 
foreign bodies of, 206. 
fracture of, 205. 
hematoma of, 204. 
hemorrhage into, 205. 
herpes of, 211. 
inflammations of, 210. 
mucous patches on, 226. 
papilloma of, 232. 
short frenum of, 251. 
treatment for cancer of, 234. 
warts of, 233. 

Percussion note altered in fracture, 367. 

Perforating ulcer of foot, 529. 
of toes, 531. 

Pericardium, penetrating wound of, 
157. 

Perineum, crossed bandage of, 671. 
laceration of, acute, 256. 
old, 275. 
suture for, 256. 
treatment for, 256. 

Periosteum, wounds of, 16. 
followed by meningitis, 17. 

Perirectal abscess, 291. 

Peritonsillar abscess, 55. 

Pessary for prolapsed uterus, 276. 

Phalanx, fracture of, 385, 509. 

Pharyngeal cleft, closure of first, 76. 

Pharynx, abscess of, 56. 

Phimosis, 244. 
incisions for, 248. 
dorsal, 247. 
lateral, 247. 

operation for, on an infant, 247. 
operative treatment for, 246. 
recurrence of, 251. 
sutures for, 249. 

Phlebitis, treatment for, 516. 

Phlebitis of leg, 515. 

Picric acid for burns, 27. 



INDEX 


833 


Piles, itching, 313. 

Pinworms, treatment for, 287. 
Plantaris muscle, rupture of tendon 
of, 475. 

Plaster casts, 585, 592. 

application of, 585. 

Plaster jacket, 594. 

stockinette for, 569. 

Plaster of Paris bandages, 582. 

for cervical tuberculosis, 134. 

Plaster splint, circulation affected by, 
503. 

for fracture of patella, 500. 

molded, 592. 

to cut fenestra in, 589. 

Plastic operations, 776. 

superior to Thiersch grafts, 775. 
Plastic operations, 776. 

Plate for cleft palate, 115. 

Pleural cavity, penetrating wound of, 
157. 

pus in, 175. 

Plugs for stricture ox rectum, 306. 
Poison ivy, dermatitis due to, 30. 
Poisoning from iodoform, 31. 

Pointed condylomata of anus, 307. 
Polyp of anus, 308. 
of cervix, 270. 

resection of mucous membrane 
for, 271. 
of rectum, 308. 

Popliteal artery, aneurism of, 540. 
Position of foot in fracture of ankle- 
joint, 507. 

of hand in fractures of forearm, 378. 
of head in wryneck, 149. 
of testicle in hydrocele, 238. 
of ulnar artery, 328. 

Posterior dislocation of finger, 358. 
Posterior figure of eight bandage, of 
chest, 635. 

of head and neck, 621. 

Posterior nares, plugging of, 6. 
Posterior urethritis, 216. 

Postoperative treatment for hemor¬ 
rhoids, 316. 

Pott’s disease, cervical, 133. 

treatment for, 133. 

Poultice for a boil, 126. 

Powder grains, removal of, 8. 


Precancerous stage of epithelioma, 97. 

Predisposing causes of ulcer of leg, 
520. 

Preparation, of bandage, 596. 
of gauze sponges, 565. 
of gypsum bandages, 582. 
of patient for operation, 752. 
for rectal operation, 297. 

Prepatellar bursa, dissection of, 480. 

Prepatellar bursitis, 476. 
fluid in, 491. 

Prepuce, serous cyst of, 231. 

Pressure of bandage, amount of, 601. 

Prevention of chafing, 287. 

Primary lesion of anthrax, 132. 

Principles of roller bandage, 596. 

Probing for necrotic bone, 43. 

Procain, in local anesthesia, 756, 758. 

Proctitis, acute, 288. 
chronic, 289. 
treatment for, 289. 

Proctoscope, diagnosis of ulcer of rec¬ 
tum through, 302. 
for inspection of rectum, 281. 

Proctotomy, external, 306. 
internal, 306. 

Profundus tendons, test for division 
of, 330. 

Prolapse of female urethra, 274. 
of uterus, 275. 

Prolapsed hemorrhoid, reduction of, 
313. 

Prostate, castration in enlargement of, 
236. 

cauterization of, 236. 
massage of, 217. 
tumors of, 235. 

Prostatectomy, 236. 

Prostatic ducts, gonococci in, 216. 

Prostatic hypertrophy, 235. 

passage of catheter in, 236. 

Proud flesh, 458. 

Pruritus, 260. 

coffee a cause of, 287. 
due to diabetes, 261. 
to parasites, 261. 
to hemorrhoids, 287. 
to vaginal discharge, 261. 
treatment for, 287. 

Pruritus ani, 287. 





834 


INDEX 


Pseudoleukemia, cervical glands en¬ 
larged in, 145. 

Punctured wound of a joint, 475. 
of the hand, 328. 

Punctures, ganglion treated by, 448. 
Purse-string suture for incontinence 
of anus, 322. 

Purulent conjunctivitis, 48. 

Purulent vaginal discharge, 258. 

Pus in a blister, 325. 
in a tendon sheath, 412. 
outside a tendon sheath, 418. 

Pus finger, 405. 

Radial artery, division of, 328. 

Radial nerve, division of, 329. 

Radical treatment for hydrocele, 240. 
Radiograph, of dislocation of fore¬ 
finger, 357. 

Radiograph of dislocated thumb, 349. 
of drop-finger, 362. 
of lateral dislocation of finger, 359. 
showing loss of bone following sup¬ 
purative arthritis, 424. 

Radius, deformity after fracture of, 
383. 

dislocation of, 351. 
downward, 354. 
forward, 352. 
fracture of, impacted, 380. 

molded gypsum splints for, 383. 
fracture of head of, 377. 
of lower end of, 380. 
of neck of, 376. 
non-union in fracture of, 379. 
subluxation of, 354. 

Radius and ulna, crossed union of, 379. 

dislocation of, 351. 

Ragged wounds, treatment for, 14. 
Railroad spine, 161. 

Ranula, 71. 

Rape, 258. 

Rapid dilatation of stricture of rec¬ 
tum, 306. 

Rate of growth of finger nail, 410. 

Ray fungus in actinomycosis, 65. 
Reattachment of a severed finger, 389. 
Rectal anesthesia, 740. 

Rectal dilator, 287. 

Rectal discharge, gonococci in, 299. 


Rectal disease, use of probe in, 280. 
Rectal hernia, 321. 

Rectal operation, preparation of pa¬ 
tient for, 297. 

Rectal speculum, 282. 

Rectal stricture dilated by fingers, 305. 
Rectal tuberculosis, 301. 

Rectum, abscess of, 291. 
treatment for, 293. 
bougies for stricture of, 306. 
cancer of, 316. 
cauterization of, 320. 
chronic prolapse of, 319. 
congenital stricture of, 323. 
continuous irrigation of, 289. 
deformities of, 318. 
diarrhea in ulcer of, 302. 
digital examination of, 280. 
dilation of veins of, 311. 
effect of feces in, 311. 
examination of, 280. 
foreign bodies in, 286. 
gonorrhea of, 298. 
gradual dilatation of stricture of, 
306. 

gumma of, 301. 
hemorrhage from, 284, 313. 

Houston’s folds in, 306. 
inflammation of, 288. 
injuries of, 280. 

inspection of, through a proctoscope, 
281. 

irrigation of, in gonorrhea, 215. 
malignant tumors of, 316. 
non-operative treatment for stric¬ 
ture of, 305. 
palpation of, 281. 

in a squatting position, 305. 
plugs for stricture of, 306. 
polyp of, 308. 

rapid dilatation of stricture of, 306. 
recurrence of prolapse of, 319. 
sarcoma of, 317. 
secondary hemorrhage of, 285. 
stools in stricture of, 304. 
stricture of, 304. 

gradual dilatation of, 306. 
intestinal obstruction in, 304. 
plugs for, 306. 
rapid dilatation of, 306. 




INDEX 


835 


Rectum, structure of, stools in, 304. 
treatment for, non-operative, 305. 
suture of wounds of, 284. 
syphilis of, 301. 
treatment, for abscess of, 293. 
for chronic prolapse of, 320. 
lor ulcer of, 303. 
for wounds of, 284. 
tuberculous fistula of, 298. 
ulcer of, 301. 

symptoms of, 302. 
wounds of, 284. 

Recurrence, of hydrocele, 240. 
of ganglion, 447. 
of phimosis, 251. 
of prolapse of rectum, 319. 
of ulcer of leg, 522, 526. 

Recurrent bandage, of finger, 664. 
of head, 609. 
of stump, 688. 

Recurrent sprain of ankle, 496. 

Reduction, of dislocation, 347. 

of fractured clavicle by operation, 

166. 

of hemorrhoids, 311. 
of prolapsed hemorrhoid, 313. 
of retracted foreskin, 205. 

Reenforcing gypsum splint, 591. 

Regional anesthesia, 756. 

Reinfection of chancroids, 299. 

Relations, of great trochanter to ilium, 
488. 

of tendons above the wrist, 343. 

Relaxation of sphincter of bladder, 
272. 

Relief of retention of urine, 219. 

Removal, of bullet, 14. 
of displaced coccyx, 183. 
of enlarged glands of neck, 142. 
of epithelioma of lower lip, 101. 
of floating cartilage, 485. 
of fluid from knee-joint, 500. 
of foreign body from hand, 337. 
from urethra, 260. 
from vagina, 260. 
of gouty deposit, 435. 
of gypsum splint, 588. 
of hypertrophic tonsil, 87. 
of infected inguinal glands, 224. 
of mole, 78. 


Removal, of old nail in paronychia, 410. 
of pediculi, 130. 
of powder grains, 8. 
of splinter, 14. 
of suppurating gland, 431. 
of testicle, 235. 
of thyroid gland, 147. 
of tongue for epithelioma, 103. 
of tumor, 772. 
of undescended testicle, 254. 
of varicose veins, 539. 
of whole testicle for tuberculosis, 
229. 

Repair after a burn, 29. 

Reposition of fractured bone, 368. 
Reschke’s skin-grafts, 773. 

Resection, of accessory tendons, 470. 
of chancre, 226. 

of elbowjoint after fracture, 376. 
of mucous membrane for polyp of 
cervix, 271. 

of rib for tuberculosis, 178. 

Rest in gonorrhea, 214. 

Restoration of function after fracture, 
369. 

Results, after circumcision, 250. 

after operation for ingrown nail, 
548. 

in minor surgery, 751. 

Retention cysts of infancy, 182. 
Retention of urine, 219. 

catheterization for, 219. 
causes of, 219. 
m female, 273. 

Retraction of foreskin at birth, 245. 
of nipple in cancer of breast, 189. 
of skin, after circumcision, 250. 
in carcinoma of breast, 189. 
Retropharyngeal abscess, 56. 
Reversing a bandage, 598. 
Rheumatism, articular, 433. 

lccal treatment of, 433. 

Rheumatoid arthritis, 434. 

Rhinitis, chronic, 53. 

herpes in, 53. 

Rhinophyma, 83. 

Rib, adhesive plaster for broken, 168. 
fracture of, 167. 

treatment for, 168. 
injury of periosteum of, 167. 



836 


INDEX 


Bib, tuberculosis of, 178. 

Kibbon bandage, 570. 

Bice bodies of hand, 439. 

Bigidity in flatfoot, 557. 

Bingworm, 58. 

Bodent ulcer of face, 94. 

Boiler bandage, 596. 

general principles of, 596. 
materials for, 597. 

Bolling a bandage, 597. 

Bosacea liypertrophica of nose, 83. 

Bubber drainage tube, 577. 

Bubber bandages, 570. 

k ‘ Bun-around, ’ ’ 407. 

Bupture, of bladder, 210. 

with fracture of pelvis, 210. 
of hemorrhoid, 310. 
of hymen, 255. 

of intraabdominal organ, 155. 
of ischiorectal abscess, 293. 
of lateral ligament of knee, 491, 496. 
of tendon, 475. 

of tendon of plantaris muscle, 475. 
of urethra, 208. 
of vagina, 255. 
of vein of leg, 474. 

Sacroiliac tuberculosis, 179. 

Saline solution, injection of, 785. 
use of, for burns, 27. 

Salivary cyst, 72. 

Salvarsan, injection of, 781. 
gangrene due to, 780. 

Sarcoma and epulis, 90. 

Sarcoma, compared with syphilis, 234. 
of the breast, 190. 
of femur, 492. 
of finger, 462. 
of great toe, 542. 
of hand, 462. 
of head, 104. 
of knee, 542. 
of lower extremity, 542. 
of rectum, 317. 
of testicle, 234. 
of trunk, 192. 

Sarcomatous growth of mole, 77. 

Sayre dressing for fracture of clavicle, 
165. 

Scabies, 171. 

Scalp, abscess of, 38. 


Scalp, abrasions of, 7. 
contusions of, 1. 
eczema of, 57. 
epithelioma of, 97. 
gumma of, 63. 
hematoma of, 3. 

preparation of, for operation, 3. 
pulsating angioma of, 82. 
ringworm of, treatment for, 58. 
sebaceous cysts of, 66. 

Scalp wound, drainage of, 3. 

Scapula, fracture of, 167. 

Scar from alveolar abscess, 47. 
mistaken for foreign body, 336. 

Scissors for amputation of uvula, 112. 

Scopolamin, in regional anesthesia, 758. 

Scrofulous gums, cure of, 106. 

Scrotum, abscess of, 212. 
excision of, 230. 
hematoma of, 204. 
mucous patches on, 226. 
treatment for cancer of, 234. 

Sebaceous cyst, diagnosis of, 67. 
drainage of, 70. 
inflammation of, 67. 
of head, 66. 
of leg, 540. 
of neck, 135. 
of trunk, 181. 
operation for, 69. 

Sebaceous material beneath foreskin, 
231. 

Secondary hemorrhage of rectum, 285 

Section, of finger showing site of an 
abscess, 406. 
of lumbar spine, 798, 
of great toe, showing nail, 545. 

Separation of epiphysis, 370. 

Septum, nasal, deviation of, 109. 
submucous excision of, 109. 
tumor of, 92. 

Sequestrum of lower jaw, 43. 

Serous cyst of prepuce, 231. 

Serous synovitis, 344. 
of lower extremity, 483. 

Serum in a joint after sprain, 339. 

Serum therapy, 801. 

Sheath of tendon, pus in, 412. 

Sherman’s paraffin-watomizer, 769. 

Shock in sprain of neck, 123. 





INDEX 


837 


Short frenum of penis, 251. 

Shortening a sign of fracture, 305. 
Shoulder, ascending spica bandage of, 
651. 

descending spica bandage of, 652. 
dislocation of, 350. 
neuritis of, 342. 
sprain of, 340. 

Shoulder-cap for fracture of humerus, 
372. 

Shoulder-joint, effusion into, 345. 

examination of, 341. 

Signs of fracture, 363. 

Silk, oiled, 571. 

sterilization of, 575. 
use of, for bandages, 570. 

for skin sutures, 762. 
for sutures, 575. 
for tendon suture, 334. 

Silkworm gut, 575. 

Silver wire, 576. 

Simple cyst of breast, 183. 

Simple lipoma, 137. 

Simple urethritis, 212. 

Simple vulvitis, 261. 

Single roller bandage of head, 609. 
Sinking of transverse arch, 560. 

Sitz bath for fistula, 297. 

Sinus, branchiogenic, 137. 
congenital, near ear, 76. 
frontal, drainage of, 54. 
pus in, 53. 

in tuberculosis of wrist, 442. 
of urethra, 209. 

thyreoglossal, recurrence of, 136. 
Sinuses and cysts, coccygeal, 181. 

umbilical, 181. 

Skin, fibroma of, 76. 

inflammations of, 57. 

Skin-flaps, elasticity of, 773. 
Skingrafting, 773. 
after burns, 29. 
for cicatricial deformity, 463. 
for ulcer of leg, 528. 

Keschke’s method, 773. 

Thiersch’s method, 774. 

Wolfe’s method, 775. 

Skin-grafts, dressing for, 774. 

for burns, 393. , 

Skin-sutures, glover’s needles for, 762. 


Skin-sutures, silk for, 762. 

Skull, aberrant thyroid in, 105. 
fracture of, 17. 

Slough of intestine following contu-‘ 
sion, 156. 

Sloughs after burns, 28. 

Solid tumors of the genitals, 232. 

Solution, Thiersch’s, 15. 
in operation, 753. 

Sound, good type of, 218. 

Sores of back from lying in bed, 175. 

Spasm, of sphincter ani, 290. 

of sphincter in ulcer of rectum, 302. 
with chancroid, 300. 

Specific urethritis, 213. 

Speculum, bivalve, for rectum, 283. 
urethral, 259. 

Sphincter ani, incontinence of, 321. 
spasm of, 290. 

with chancroid, 300. 
stretching of, 282. 

Spica bandage, of both breasts, 640. 
of foot, 683. 
of great toe, 686. 
of one breast, 638. 
of thumb, 660. 

Spica bandages, 601. 

Spina bifida, 201. 

Spinal anesthesia, 758. 

dose of cocain in, 744. 

Spinal column, sprain of, 161. 

Spinal cord, injury of, in fracture, 124. 

Spinal puncture, 799. 

Spine, cervical fracture of, 124. 
railroad, injuries of, 161. 
sprain of, 122. 
tests for injury of, 161. 
treatment for injury of, 163. 
tuberculosis of, 17.9. 

Spiral bandage, of arm, 652. 
of toe, 686. 

Spiral reverse bandage, of finger, 661. 
of forearm, 655. 
of hand, 659. 
of leg, 678. 
of thigh, 672. 

Spiral reverse of bandage, 598. 

Spirocheta pallida, 225. 

Splint, angular, 581. 






838 


INDEX 


Splint, circular gypsum, 585. 
coaptation, 580. 
for burns, 393. 

for fracture of lower jaw, 22. 

for liallux valgus, 553. 

for sprain of knee, 492. 

from wire netting, 581. 

interdental, 22. 

metal, 580. 

nasal, 19. 

tin, 581. 

wood, 580. 

Splinter, removal of, 14. 
in wound, 336. 

Sponges, gauze, 565. 

gauze, preparation of, 566. 

Sprain, 338. 

active motions after, 339. 
of ankle, 493. 

adhesive strapping for, 494. 
hot fomentations for, 495. 
ice-bag for, 495. 
recurrent, 496. 
slight, treatment for, 493. 
with fracture of malleolus, 495. 
of back, 158. 
of cervical spine, 122. 
of finger, 339. 
of hip, 487. 

treatment for, 489. 
of knee, 489. 

differential diagnosis of, 491. 
splint for, 492. 
treatment for, 492. 
of lower extremity, 486. 
of neck, 122. 
of shoulder, 340. 
of spinal column, 161. 
of thumb, adhesive plaster strap¬ 
ping for, 340. 
passive motion after, 339. 
treatment for, 339. 

Spur of nose, 92. 

Squatting position in rectal examina¬ 
tion, 281. 

Steno 's duct, division of, 16. 

Stenosis of the cervix, 278, 279. 
dilatation for, 279. 

Sterilization of catgut, 572. 
of silk sutures, 575. 


Sternoclavicular articulation, tubercu¬ 
losis of, 178. 

Sternomastoid muscle, abscess under, 
131. 

fibroma of, 140. 

Sternum, fracture of, 167. 

Stimson’s method of reducing a dis¬ 
located humerus, 351. 

Stitch, mattress, for tendon, 333. 
Stockinette bandages, 569. 

Stockinette for a plaster jacket, 569. 
Stomatitis, 55. 

Stools in stricture of rectum, 304. 
Stovain, dose of, 800. 

Straight and curved skin needles, 764. 
Strain of testicle, 206. 

Strangulated hernia, 198. 

Strangulation of hemorrhoid, 311. 
Strapping, a joint with adhesive plas¬ 
ter, 493. 

a sprained back, 159. 

Strap-splints, 589. 

for fracture of the malleoli, 506. 
Stretching foreskin, 245. 

Stretching of sphincter ani, 282. 
for fissure, 291. 

Stricture, examination of urethra for, 
217. 

gradual dilatation of, 218. 
of anus, 304. 
of rectum, 304. 
congenital, 323. 
from ulcer, 303. 
operative treatment for, 305. 
syphilitic, 303. 
of urethra, 217. 

Strip gauze, 567. 

Stump, recurrent bandage of, 688. 

dressing of, 688, 689. 

Style, 37. 

Subconjunctival ecchymosis, 2. 
Subcutaneous dissection of varicose 
.veins, 540. 

Subcutaneous infusion, 786. 

Subcuticular suture, 14, 764. 

Subdeltoid bursitis, 340. 

Subgluteal bursitis, 480. 

Subluxation of jaw, 24. 
of radius, 354. 






INDEX 


839 


Sublimis tendons, test for division of, 
330. 

Sublingual salivary cyst, 71. 
Submaxillary gland mistaken for en¬ 
larged lymphatic glands, 142. 
Submucous excision of septum, 109. 
Subperiosteal hematoma of leg, 473. 
Substitutes for cotton, 565. 

Sunburn, 29. 
of lip, 29. 
prevention of, 29. 

Superior maxilla, fracture of, 19. 
Superior maxillary nerve injected with 
alcohol, 792. 

Supernumerary finger, 468. 
Supernumerary thumb, 468. 
Supernumerary toe, 562. 

Support for sunken nose, 108. 
Suprapubic cystotomy for retention, 
220 . 

Suppuration, in antrum of Highmore, 
54. 

in Bartholin’s gland, incision for, 
264. 

in cellulitis, 34. 

in compound fracture, 387. 

in finger, incision for, 411. 

in finger-joint, tin splint for, 425. 

in frontal sinus, 53. 

in hand, 412. 

in hang-nail, 410. 

in joint, drainage for, 425. 

in hallux valgus, 554. 
in minute wounds, 332. 
in neck, 130. 
in palm, 414. 
in tendon sheath, 411. 

followed by contraction of finger, 
421. 

result of, 421. 
umbilical, 175. 

Suppurative, arthritis of hand, 423. 
with loss of bone, 424. 
bursitis of toe, 551. 
olecranon bursitis, 427. 
prepatellar bursitis, 477. 
synovitis, of hand, 423. 

of knee-joint, 532. 
of lower extremity, 532. 
treatment for, 532. 


Suppurative, thecitis, 411. 

wound, drainage in, 759. 

Suprarenal extract to control hemor¬ 
rhage, 258. 

Surgical dressings, 563. 

Surplus skin after circumcision, 251. 
‘‘Sure cure” of ulcer of leg, 522. 
Suture, for phimosis, 249. 
of hyoid, 123. 
of incised vein, 118. 
of laceration of perineum, 256. 
of nerves, 334. 
of skin, horsehair for, 575. 

glover ’s needles for, 762. 
of tendons, 332. 
of urethra, 209. 
of wounds of air passage, 119. 

of wounds of lip, 15. 

of wounds of rectum, 284. 

replacing of, by hooks, 765. 
subcuticular, 14. 

Sutures, 571. 
absorbable, 572. 
interrupted, 762. 
non-absorbable, 575. 
of horsehair, 575. 
silk, 575. 
subcuticular, 764. 

Suturing of wounds, 761. 

Swelling, after fracture, 364. 
in abscess of palm, 413. 
of lymphatic glands from decayed 
teeth, 41. 

of tuberculous joint to be measured, 
441. 

Symptoms, of chronic hemorrhoids, 31. 
of contusion of abdomen, 154. 
of fistula, 296. 
of internal hemorrhage, 155. 
of ischiorectal abscess, 292. 
of suppurative thecitis, 412. 
of ulcer of rectum, 302. 

Synovitis, of hand, suppurative, 423. 
of knee, serous chronic, 484. 
serous, 344. 

suppurative, treatment for, 425. 
Syphilis, 268. 

cervical glands enlarged in, 145. 
internal treatment for, 61. 

I local treatment for, 61, 781. 







840 


INDEX 


Syphilis, micro-organism of, 225. 
inflammations of, 55. 
of anus, 300. 
of cheek, 59. 
of hand, 435. 
of head, 59. 
of lip, 59. 

of lower extremity, 534. 
of male genitals, 225. 
of rectum, 301. 
of testicle, 226. 

sarcoma compared with, 234. 
of tongue, 59. 
of trunk, 177. 
papilloma mistaken for, 76. 
tertiary lesions of, 63. 

Syphilis and epithelioma, 98. 
Syphilitic, condylomata about anus, 
300. 

dactylitis, 436. 
eczema of finger, 432. 
glossitis, 63. 
crchitis, 226. 
periostitis of tibia, 534. 

Tear-duct, obstruction of, 108. 
Technique of vaccination, 792. 

Ten-day catgut, 574, 

Tendo Aehillis, bursa under, 481. 
Tendon, animal, 574. 
elongation of, 333. 
kangaroo, 574. 

method of lengthening of, 464. 
rupture of, 475. 
suture of, 332. 

Tendon sheath, pus outside of, 418. 
suppuration in, 411. 

result of, 421. 
tuberculosis of, 439. 

Tendon suture by long silk thread, 334. 
Tendons, above wrist, relations of, 343. 
division of, 476. 
in wrist, division of, 329. 
of hand, too many accessory, 469. 
Tenosynovitis, acute non-suppurative, 
343. 
dry, 344. 

Tension, tying knot under, 764. 
Terminal extremity of bandage, 597. 
Tertiary lesions of syphilis, 63. 


Testicle, cancer and syphilis of, com¬ 
pared, 228. 
carcinoma of, 234. 
contusion of, 204. 
cysts of, 232. 
descent of, 253. 
gumma of, 227. 
injury of, 203. 
neuralgia of, 206. 
position of, in hydrocele, 238. 
lemoval of, 235. 
sarcoma of, 234. 
strain of, 206. 
syphilis of, 226. 
tuberculosis of, 229. 

compared with syphilis, 228. 
undescended, 253. 
removal of, 254. 
treatment for, 253. 
within abdomen, 254. 

Tests, for injury of spine, 161. 

for division of profundus tendons, 
330. 

for division of sublimis tendons, 330. 
for false point of motion, 366. 
for flatfoot, 557. 
ol functions of a joint, 488. 

Thecitis, suppurative, 411. 
symptoms of, 412. 

Thick lips, 115. 

Thiersch grafts, 774. 

Thiersch’s solution, 15. 

Thigh, spiral reverse bandage of, 672. 

Thread, celluloid, 576. 
cotton and linen, 576. 

Throat, foreign bodies in, 12. 
inflammations of, 55. 

Thrombosis of leg, 515. 

Thumb, abscess of tip of, 406. 

adhesive plaster strapping for sprain 
of, 340. 

dislocation of, 349, 355. 
operation for, 357. 
radiograph in, 349. 
dislocation of phalanx of, 355. 
incision for abscess of, 417. 
overextension of, 357. 
spica bandage of, 660. 
supernumerary, 468. 

Thyreoglossal cyst, 135, 



INDEX 


841 


Thyreoglossal cyst, sinus, recurrence 
of, 1.36. 

Thyroid, mortality after fracture of, 
124. 

tumors of, 145. 

Thyroid gland, removal of, 147. 

Tibia and fibula, fracture of, 504. 
Tibia, non-union of, 501. 
osteoma of, 541. 
syphilitic periostitis of, 534. 

Tibial fracture with delayed union,501. 
Tin splint for suppuration in a joint 
of finger, 425. 
splints, 580. 

Toe, amputation of, 510. 
circular bandage of, 686. 
complex spica bandage of, 687. 
gangrene of, 513. 
hypertrophy of, 561. 
osteoma of, 541. 
perforating ulcers of, 531. 
sarcoma of, 542. 
section of, showing nail, 545. 
spica bandage of, 686. 
spiral bandage of, 686. 
supernumerary, 562. 
suppurative bursitis of, 551. 
Toe-nail, hematoma under, 472. 
Tongue, abscess of, 38. 
epithelioma of, 98, 103. 

early diagnosis of, 103. 
leucoplakia of, 98. 
syphilis of, 59. 

Tongue-tie, 115. 

Tonsil, blunt dissection of, 89. 
cancer of, 107. 

hypertrophic, removal of, 87. 
hypertrophy of, 86. 

compared with malignant growths 
of, 107. 
of lingual, 87. 

instruments for removal of, 88. 
malignant growth of, 107. 
treatment following removal of, 89. 
Tonsillectomy, 87. 
instruments for, 88. 
local anesthetic for, 89. 

Tonsillitis, abscess in, 55. 

Tooth, eruption of wisdom, 24. 
extraction of decayed, 45. 


Toothache a sign of infection, 45. 

Torticollis, 148. 

position of head in, 149. 
treatment of acute, 150. 

Trachea, fracture of, 124. 

Tracheotomy, 119. 

for foreign body, 118. 
instruments for, 120. 

Trachoma, 50. 

wet applications for, 50. 

Transfusion, 785. 
of blood, 787. 

Transverse arch, sinking of, 560. 

Transverse flatfoot, 560. 

Transverse section of lumbar spine, 
798. 

Traumatic ulcers of hand, 331. 

Traumatism, blisters from, 325. 

Treatment, after tonsillectomy, 89. 
Carrel-Dak in, 766. 
for abscess, 38. 

of rectum, 293. 
for acne, 33. 

for acute hemorrhoid, 310. 

for actue prolapse in infants, 318. 

for acute torticollis, 150. 

for adenofibroma of breast, 188. 

for adenoids, 89. 

for alveolar abscess, 45. 

for angioma by operation, 82. 

for bed-sore, 175. 

for black eye, 2. 

for blister, 325, 471. 

for boils, 36, 126. 

for bubo, 224. 

for burns by exposure, 27. 

for burns of second degree, 26. 

of third degree, 28. 
for bursitis of foot, 483. 
for callus, 537. 
for cancer of penis, 234. 

of scrotum,. 234. 
for capillary angioma, 80. 
for carbuncle of neck, 128. 
for cellulitis, 34. 
for chancre, 225. 
for chancroid, 224. 
for chronic lymphadenitis, 142. 
for chronic prolapse of the rectum, 
320. 









842 


INDEX 


Treatment, for cleft palate, 114. 
for conjunctivitis, 48. 
for contusion of abdomen, 156. 
for corn, 538. 
for dermoid cyst, 75. 
for dislocation, 347. 

of finger, 359. 
for erysipelas, 35. 
for fracture, 368. 
of patella, 499. 
of rib, 168. 
of spine, 169. 
for fractured clavicle, 164. 
for fissure, 290. 
for fistula, 297. 
for flatfoot, 558. 
for frost-bite, 394. 
for ganglion, 446. 

by punctures, 448. 
for gangrene of finger, 397. 
for gonorrhea, 213. 
in female, 262. 
of rectum, 299. 
for hallux valgus, 551. 
for incontinence of childhood, 221. 
for ingrown nail, 546. 
for injury of spme, 163. 
for ischiorectal abscess, 293. 
for keloid, 184. 
for lipoma, 137. 
for phlebitis, 516. 
for pin worms, 287. 
for posterior urethritis, 216. 
for prepatellar bursitis, 479. 
for proctitis, 289. 
for pruritus, 287. 
for ragged wounds, 14. 
for rectal hemorrhage, 285. 
for retracted nipples, 174. 
for rheumatism locally, 433. 
for rupture of the urethra, 209. 
for sebaceous cyst, 68. 
for slight sprain of the ankle, 493. 
for sprain, 339. 
for sprain, of back, 158. 
of hip, 489. 
of knee, 492. 
of shoulder, 342. 

for suppurative synovitis, 425, 532. 
for trachoma, 50. 


Treatment, for tuberculous arthritis, 
443. 

for ulcer of leg, general measures 
in, 526. 

for ulcer of rectum, 303. 

for undescended testicie, 253. 

for varicocele, 243. 

for varicose veins, 539. 

for vulvitis, 2Q2. 

for warts, 459. 

for wounds, 13, 766. 

for wounds of rectum, 284. 

internal, for syphilis, 61. 

local, for syphilis, 61. 

Trichiasis, 50. 

Trocar and cannula, method of hold¬ 
ing, 200. 

Trochanter, fracture of, 497. 

Trunk, bandages of, 634. 
burns of, 170. 
carcinoma of, 191. 
cellulitis of, 172. 
cystic tumors of, 181. 
dermoid cysts of, 182. 
fibroma of, 185. 
injuries of, 153. 
keloid of, 184. 
lipoma of, 185. 
papilloma of, 185. 
sarcoma of, 192. 
sebaceous cysts of, 181. 
syphilis of, 177. 
tuberculosis of, 178. 
wounds of, 156. 

Truss, 198. 

Tube, after tracheotomy, insertion of, 
119. 

care of, 120. 

withdrawal of an intubation, 122. 
Tubercle, anatomical, 399. 

Tuberculosis, castration for, 230. 
cervical, 133. 
costal, 178. 

muscular spasm in, 489. 
of anus, 301. 
of arm, 440. 
of breast, 180. 
of dorsal vertebrae, 179, 
of face, 63. 
of hip, 535, 



INDEX 


843 


Tuberculosis, of lower extremity, 535. 
of mammary gland, 180. 
of mouth, 64. 
of neck, 133. 

plaster of Paris bandage for, 134. 
of rectum, 301. 
of rib, 178. 

of seminal vesicles, 229. 

of spine, 133, 179. 

of sternoclavicular articulation, 178. 

of tendon sheaths, 439. 

of testicle, 229. 

of trunk, 178. 

of upper extremity, 442. 

of wrist with sinus, 442. 

removal of whole testicle for, 229. 

resection of rib for, 178. 

sacroiliac, 179. 

Tuberculosis and syphilis of testicle 
compared, 228. 

Tuberculous cystitis, 229. 
glands of neck, 142. 

suppurating, 144. 
fistula of rectum, 298. 
ischiorectal abscess, 295. 
joint, loss of function in, 442. 
measurements of, 441. 
pain in, 442. 

nodules, in epididymis, 229. 
in the vas deferens, 229. 

Tumors, of anus, 307. 
of arm, 445. 
of bladder, 235. 
of foot, 537. 
of hand, 445. 
of head, 66. 
benign, 76. 
cystic, 66. 
malignant, 92. 
of leg, 537. 
of male breast, 191. 
of male genitals, 232. 
of nasal septum, 92. 
of neck, 135. 
of parotid, 106. 
of prostate, 235. 
of thyroid gland, 145. 
of tonsil, malignant, 107. 
removal of, 772. 
solid, of breast, 187. 


Tunica vaginalis, fluid in, 236. 
Turbinate bone, hypertrophy of, 53. 
Twisted nails, 544. 

Tying ligatures, method of, 758. 

Types of local inflammation, 399. 

Ulcer, from vaccination, 432. 
of face, 59. 
of leg, 519. 

acute, inflammation in, 523. 
carcinomatous, 543. 
cause of, 521. 
eczema in, 524. 

elastic rubber stocking after, 527. 
exposing bone, 529. 
flannel bandage for, 527. 
general treatment for, 526. 
growth of epithelium in, 524. 
measures for cleansing, 523. 
measures for stimulation of, 523. 
operative treatment for, 528. 
predisposing causes of, 520. 
recurrence of, 522, 526. 
skin-grafting for, 528. 

“sure cure ’’ for, 522. 
varicose veins in, 538. 
venous engorgement in, 525. 
of rectum, 301. 

spasm of sphincter in, 302. 
rodent, of face, 94. 
stricture of rectum from, 303. 
Ulceration of epithelioma, 95. 

of rectum after syphilitic stricture, 
303. 

Ulna, fracture of, 376. 

Ulna and radius, backward dislocation 
of, 353. 

involved in Colles’s fracture, 380. 
or radius, fracture of, 378. 

Ulnar artery, position of, 328. 

nerve, division of, 329. 

Umbilical cysts and sinuses, 181. 
hernia, 196. 
suppuration, 175. 

Umbilicus, granuloma of, 183. 

hemorrhage from, 156. 

Unbleached cotton, 563. 
muslin, 568. 

Undescended testicle, 253. 
and hernia, 254. 






844 


INDEX 


Unimpacted fracture of neck of femur, 
489. 

Unreduced dislocation, 350. 

Unusual types of hydrocele, 240. 
Upper extremity, bandages of, 651. 
compound fractures of, 386. 
dislocations of, 347. 
fractures of, 363. 
injuries of, 324. 
tuberculosis of, 442. 

Urethra, 275. 
calculus of, 207. 
cauterization of prolapsed, 274. 
diagnosis of rupture of, 209. 
divulsion of, 217. 

extraction of foreign body from, 
207. 

of pin from, 207. 
female, 275. 
fistula of, 252. 
foreign bodies in, 207, 258. 
good type of steel sound for, 218. 
inflammation of, 213. 
operation for prolapse of, 275. 
passage of steel sound into, 218. 
prolapse of, 275. 

removal of foreign bodies from, 260. 
rupture of, 208. 

treatment for, 209. 
sinus of, 209. 
stricture of, 217. 

treatment for, 217. 
sudden dilatation of, 217. 
suture of, 209. 

urethroscope for examination of fe¬ 
male, 259. 

Urethral caruncle, 270. 
speculum, 259. 

Urethritis, absence of gonococci, 212. 
chronic, 216. 
gonorrheal, 263. 
posterior, 216. 

treatment for, 216. 
simple, 212. 
specific, 213. 

Urethroscope for examination of fe¬ 
male urethra, 259. 

Urethrotomy, external, retention for, 

220 . 

internal, 218. 

Urine, blood in, 210. 


Urine, catheterization for retention of, 
219. 

extravasation of, 210. 
incontinence of, 220, 272. 
retention of, 219. 
causes of, 219. 
in female, 273. 
relief from, 219. 

Urticaria, 31. 

distinguished from eczema, 432. 
local treatment for, 31. 

Uterus, curettage of, 267. 

introduction of gauze within, 258. 
operations for prolapse of, 277. 
prolapse of, 275. 
pessary for, 276. 

Uvula, amputation of, 111. 

astringent for relaxation of, 111. 
elongation of, 110. 

Uvula scissors, 112. 

Vaccination, 792. 

ulcer from, 432. 

Vaccine therapy, 801. 

A'agabond’s disease, 518. 

Vagina, fistula of, 277. 
foreign bodies in, 258. 
hematoma of, 255. 

removal of foreign bodies from, 260. 
rupture of, 255. 

Vaginal and rectal examination, 305. 
Vaginal catarrh, 265. 

Vaginal discharge, pruritus due to, 261. 

significance of a purulent, 258. 
Vaginitis, 261. 

Varicocele, 241. 
impulse on coughing in, 243. 
ligation of dilated veins in, 244. 
partial excision of scrotum in, 244. 
treatment of, 243. 

Varicose ulcer, 521. 

Varicose veins, injection of, 783. 
legation of, 539. 
relation to ulcer of leg, 538. 
removal of, 539. 

subcutaneous dissection of, 540. 
treatment for, 539. 

Varix of hand, 449. 

Vas deferens,,evulsion of, 230. 

tubercular nodule in, 229. 

Vein, ligation of, 474, 






INDEX 


845 


Vein of leg, rupture of, 474. 

suture of incised, 118. 

Veins, varicose, injection of, 783. 

Velpeau’s bandage, 643. 

Venereal warts, 232. 

about the anus, 307. 

Venesection, 585. 

Venous engorgement, 525. 

Vertebra, fracture of, 169. 

Vertebrae, dislocation of, 125, 170. 
tuberculosis of, 133, 179. 

Vertical nails, 562. 

Vesical calculus, 221. 

Vesicles, tuberculosis of seminal, 229. 

Vessels, ligation of, 332. 

Vulva, carcinoma of, 271. 
chancroid of, 268. 
condyloma of, 269. 
eczema of, 261. 
gonorrhea of, 262. 
itching of, 260. 
papilloma of, 270. 

Vulvitis, gonorrheal, 262. 
simple, 261. 
treatment for, 262. 

Wart, 458. 

epithelioma mistaken for, 95. 
malignant growth in, 92. 
of anus, removal of, 308. 
of hand, 458. 
of penis, 233. 
treatment for, 459. 
venereal, 232. 

Web-finger, 467. 

incision and suture for, 467. 

Wet applications in trachoma, 50. 

Wet-cupping, 791. 

Wet dressings, 766. 
for abrasions, 7. 
for wounds, 766. 
for wounds of hand, 30. 
heat of, 127. 

Wetting the bed, 220. 

Wheel injury, 154. 

Whitlow, 411. 

Wire cloth in gypsum bandages, 591 

Wire netting, 581. 

Wisdom tooth, eruption of, 24. 

Wolfe grafts, 775. 

Wood splints, 580. 


Wood wool, 565. 

Wounds, dressings for, 563, 765. 
effect of dry dressing, 419. 
forceps dressing of, 770. 
glass in, 336. 
infection of, 399. 
methods of draining, 759. 
of anus, 284. 
of arm, 330. 
of cheek, suture of, 15. 
of esophagus, 119. 
of external genitals, 208. 
of eye, 14. 
of hand, 330. 

foreign bodies in, 336. 
of head, 13. 

of joint, infection in, 475. 
of joints, 335. 
of jugular vein, 118. 
of knee-joint, 475. 
of lip, suture of, 15. 
of lower extremity, 475. 
of mouth, 15. 
of neck, 118. 
of periosteum, 16. 
of rectum, 284. 
of scalp, drainage of, 3. 
of trunk, 156. 
ointment dressing for, 768. 
splinter in, 336. 
suppuration in minute, 332. 
suturing of, 761. 
treatment of, 13, 766. 
wet dressings for, 766. 

Wrist, division of tendons in, 329. 
dislocation of, 355. 
fibrolipoma of, 454. 
ganglion of, 445. 

operation for, 446. 
relations of tendons above, 343. 
Wryneck, 148. 

manipulation for, 151. 
operation for, 151. 
position of head in, 149. 

X-ray and cancer, 104. 
burn, 30. 

for epithelioma, 104. 
examination in fracture, 365. 
foreign body located by, 118. 

Zoster, 172. (15) 













* 




















